The relationships among organizational structure, decision-making styles, and organizational effectiveness in sports centers

( Woojeong Cho ),( Kyongmin Lee ),( Chungwan Ryu ) 한국체육학회 2016 국제스포츠과학 학술대회 Vol.2016 No.1

Purpose: As today’s business environment becomes more complex and specialized, debate has concentrated on whether an individual who has limited knowledge and experience can make rational decisions (Bohm & Brun, 2008; Hayashi, 2001). Accordingly, the current business, management, and organizational literature (Ha, 2013; Min, 2015; Riaz, Riaz, & Batool, 2014) has focused on classifying managerial decision-making styles by the degree to which top management allows group members to participate in the process and determining how managerial decision-making affects organizational effectiveness. However, to date, relatively little research in sport management has investigated the impact of decision-making style on organizational effectiveness. Thus, the present study examined the relationships among organizational structure, decision-making styles, and organizational effectiveness in sports centers for the purpose of determining an optimal decision- making model for sports centers based on organizational structure. Method: For this purpose, a survey was given to a random sample of 341 sports center staff working in D metropolitan city. The data were then analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis. Result: The major findings of this study were as follows. First, centralization and formalization had a significant effect on the rational and dependent decision styles in sports centers. Second, centralization and formalization had a significant effect on organizational commitment and job satisfaction of employees in sports centers. The most influential dimension of organizational structure that affected employees’ organizational commitment and job satisfaction was formalization. Third, decision-making style had a significant effect on organizational commitment of employees in sports centers. The most influential decision-making style that affected employees’ organizational commitment was the rational decision style. Additionally, the decision-making style had a significant effect on job satisfaction of employees in sports centers. Rational style alone had an effect on employees’ job satisfaction. Conclusion: This study is meaningful in understanding the impact of decision-making style taken from decision theory of Harren (1979) on organizational effectiveness in sport management. The findings of this study shows that sports centers can make optimal decisions based on organizational structure and that decision-making style can affect organizational effectiveness.

RESEARCH ON DECISION-MAKING THEORY TO ESTIMATE THE EFFECTS OF SNS ON A RESEARCH

Akira Shimizu 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2014 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2014 No.7

A large body of recent research has established that word-of-mouth websites have a major impact on consumer purchases and that this trend is particularly prevalent among the young in Japan. However, prior research into consumer decision-making processes has mainly discussed the sequence of events leading up to purchase, and only a few studies have considered the generation of word-of-mouth communication. Moreover, in the empirical analyses of this research, data was mainly gathered by experiments, and a survey field to firmly gather data has not been developed. This research has two objectives: 1) To propose a new decision-making process that considers the generation of word-of-mouth communication and 2) to create and empirically demonstrate a field that can observe the generation of such communication. Specifically, the author presents a new model of the consumer decision-making process that is based on the AISAS model, a model of advertisement flow, and empirically exhibits a survey field that uses mobile phones. From the results of the analysis in this paper, the following findings were confirmed for the three consumer packaged goods (CPG) investigated: the actual existence of a decision-making process of word-of-mouth communication for the functional drink; in post-purchase behavior, a high percentage of consumers not only engage in word-of-mouth communication, but also view product official homepages; in the case of the line-extension product, while awareness is easy to obtain, only a small amount of word-of-mouth communication takes place on the Internet and even for a private-brand product, information can be spread widely by skillfully utilizing topics in the mass media. Theoretical Background Research into consumers’ decision-making processes can be broadly divided into two flows. The first is constructed from research into consumer behavior and the second from research into advertising messages. The differences between the two are that the former is advanced by investigators who are focused on attitude formation in the decision-making process, while the latter is developed by practitioners who concentrate on how information flows. The stimulation-response type and the information-processing type decision-making processes have been constructed by research into consumer behavior. In the stimulation-response type, it is thought that consumers are mobilized by external stimuli, such as advertisements, store promotions, and discounts, which ultimately cause them to make a purchase. The Howard-Sheth model that appeared in the 1960s is representative of this type, and it describes a decision-making processes that occurs when the product purchased is comparatively inexpensive and requires low participation. In contrast, the information-processing type is a decision-making process for a purchase in which the consumer actively collects information and decides on his or her attitude in achieve personal purchasing goals. It is represented by the Bettman model and describes actions taken when the product price is comparatively high and when risks exist at the time of purchase. Consumers are assumed to adopt either of these decision-making processes, depending on which is more appropriate for their particular situations, but both models mainly describe the process up to the time the purchase is made and hardly mention word-of-mouth communication after it. The area that has been being researched from the perspective of successfully communicating an advertising message to consumers has relied on the AIDMA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Memory, and Action) model that was published in 1956, which was based on the AID (Attention, Interest, and Desire) model, advocated in 1898. Searching for advertisement effects based on this flow is known to be useful in predicting consumer behavior and in corporate branding. It is widely used in the business world, since it can be usefully applied to actual businesses, but it involves hardly any empirical analysis and so is frequently used just as a concept. As described above, consumer decision-making processes have developed as two systems, but as is seen in the review, the conventional decision-making process barely touches on word-of-mouth effects after purchase. Incidentally, during the last few years in the area of advertising messages, models incorporating word-of-mouth communication after purchase have spread in Japan. A typical example is AISAS, which is an abbreviation of Attention about the product; Interest; Search, including on the Internet; Action, namely, the purchase; and Share, such as purchasers writing their impressions of the product on the Internet. Related research has established that those people who are aware of and interested in the product are more likely to listen to word-of-mouth communication and that some people tend to be more likely to listen to it than others. The SIPS model, which was developed from AISAS and assumes that word-of-mouth communication is the starting point for a purchase, is an abbreviation of Sympathize→Identify→Participate→Share & Spread. It is a model with a new paradigm in that rather than the mass media, the trigger for a purchase is word-of-mouth communication, such as a comment on Facebook. From the above, it is clear that a decision-making process for the Internet age that addresses the following points needs to be established: 1) Rather than the conventional one-way model that starts with awareness and ends with the purchase, it is necessary to consider the effects that the sharing of information after a purchase have on others who are searching for information; and 2) the decision-making process is not concluded solely within the individual, and it is necessary to consider the effects that individuals have on the market as a whole. However, in actual purchase scenes, if there are products that are bought through the proliferation of information via SNS, then, as before, there are still many purchases generated by promotions. In other words, it is thought that decision-making processes will vary according to differences in products and consumers and that these various processes coexist. Therefore, next, we will consider how these processes vary because of differences in products and consumers. Empirical Analysis For the analysis in this paper, Minrepo from Docomo Insight Marketing Inc. (DIM) was used. DIM is a joint venture between NTT Docomo Inc., which is the mobile phone company with the largest share of the Japanese market, and Intage Inc., which is Japan’s largest research company. DIM’s Minrepo is a survey and an experiment field for an SNS that uses smart phones and a mechanism by which information posted on the SNS can be confirmed. The Docomo smartphone users post reports with attached photographs of products, meals, and other items they have been used or consumed, in response to which other Docomo smartphone users click on buttons such as “Looks good” and “Wish.” Unlike Facebook, users connect loosely with people with whom they are not acquainted, and so, in actuality, its network structure is closer to that of Twitter or blogs. In addition to observing their actions, it also enables the participants to be surveyed. The current survey period was one month, July 2013, and 2,342 people participated in the survey (of whom, 1,140 were men and 1,202 were women), and a total of 19,196 reports were posted. These postings included reports on three product brands: A, a high-selling functional beverage; B, a line-extension ice bar; and C, a private-brand sweet roll. Brand A was surveyed twice via smartphone, at the beginning and at the end of the survey period. Results First, data were compiled on whether many routes existed for the decision-making processes. From these data, among the 374 people who bought brand A during the relevant period, it was found that 254 of them had some sort of awareness or interest in the product prior to their purchase, that 55 of them purchased it without thinking, and that 65 were aware of and interested in the product and had word-of-mouth communication about it prior to their purchases. Moreover, of these purchasers, 33 of them said word-of-mouth communication was the information that spurred their purchases. Many people were aware of and interested in the low-price beverage prior to their purchase of it, which might be because it is a functional beverage. The percentage of people who sent out word-of-mouth communication was slightly more than 15%, while marginally more than 10% of people were influenced by it, and it is thought that this demonstrates that it is meaningful to take word-of-mouth communication into account when considering decision-making. Next, the routes for the awareness of the three products and the consumers’ behavior after the purchase were investigated. Table 1 shows the results of this investigation. In terms of this characteristic, the awareness rate within the store was high for each of the products, but the awareness rate for brand A was often the result of the many TV commercials that were broadcast for it, while the awareness rate for brand B, which is a line-extension product, was significantly influenced by the parent brand. In contrast to these findings, the cognizance from SNS was high for brand C, and even though consumers were not subject to advertisements about it through the mass media; it was ascertained that this brand succeeded in earning awareness in stores and via SNS. Table 2 shows the consumers’ behavior after their purchases. From it, we see that much word-of-mouth communication was generated for each of the three brands, but compared to brands A and C, the volume of word-of-mouth communication generated on the Internet for brand B was extremely small. This is result is thought to reflect the fact that brand B is a brand-extension product, and so while awareness of it tends to be high, it lacks freshness to the extent that it becomes a topic on the Internet. In addition, for brand A, a large percentage of the people surveyed checked the product on the company site after their purchases of it. It is thought that this was to ascertain what was meant by it being described as functional. Finally, for brand A, the results of the surveys of the conditions before and after the experiment were compared, and the characteristics of those people who responded that they did not first send out word-of-mouth communication but did so after the experiment were investigated. From this investigation, it was ascertained that those who frequently use Twitter and Facebook and those who believe that other people expect them to be a source of information engage in word-of-mouth behavior. This shows that it is not only the product, but also the characteristics of the consumer that greatly influence word-of-mouth communication. Discussion From a review of prior research on consumers’ decision-making processes and on the flow of advertisements, this paper presents a consumer decision-making process that corresponds to the present age of a developed Internet environment. This process was confirmed with data obtained from a pseudo-Twitter world, via actual mobile phones. From this, the following findings were established: the existence of decision-making behaviors that generate word-of-mouth communication; the coexistence of conventional information-processing and stimulation-response processing, according to the product investigated; differences in behaviors for coming into contact with information prior to purchase and for transmitting and searching for information after purchase; and the greater likelihood that people who use Twitter and Facebook to engage in word-of-mouth communication.

아일랜드의 의사결정지원제도와우리나라에의 시사점

박현정 강원대학교 비교법학연구소 2023 江原法學 Vol.72 No.-

아일랜드의 지원의사결정법은 장애인의 ‘법적 능력’ 박탈에 반대하는 UN 장애인권리협약 제12조에 대한 각국의 대응방식을 보여주는 한 예이다. 아일랜드는 대체적 의사결정인 법원후견에서 ‘지원적 의사결정’으로의 전환을 위해 지원의사결정과 공동의사결정이라는 두 가지 지원방식을 제시하였으며, 법원 중심의 감독 방식에서 당사자 스스로가 설계하고 행정기관인 의사결정지원청이 감독하는 방식으로 제도의 전면적 전환을 이끌어냈다. 지원의사결정법은 한 차례의 개정을 통해 보완되고 그 내용을 구체화하는 실시규약이 제정되는 등 준비작업을 거쳐 2023년 본격적으로 시행되었다. 이러한 상황에서 의사결정지원의 방식, 그리고 당사자의 의사와 선호를 존중하는 동시에 이들을 보호하기 위한 안전장치라는 두 가지 측면에서 제도를 연구할 필요가 있다. 본 논문은 지원의사결정법의 내용을 의사결정지원 제도의 구조를 중심으로 개관하고, 지원청의 실시규약으로 구체화된 의사결정능력 판단기준과 의사결정지원의 지도원칙을 확인하며, 의사결정장애인에 대한 보호장치로서 지원의 내용상 한계와 형식적・절차적 요건, 관련서류의 등록과 감독 등을 분석하였다. 아일랜드의 의사결정지원제도는 장애인이 장애가 있는 상태에서도 의사결정지원을 받을 것인지와 지원을 받는다면 그 정도와 범위, 내용이 어떠할 것인지를 스스로 정할 수 있는 수단을 제공함으로써 당사자의 자율성을 최대로 보장하고자 하였다. 아일랜드는 현실적인 어려움을 감안하여 장애에 대한 기능적 모델을 유지하였다. 그에 따라 장애인의 의사결정능력에 대한 기능적 평가가 여전히 중요한 역할을 수행하며, 대체적 의사결정은 최후의 수단으로서 잔존하게 되었다. 이러한 한계에도 불구하고, 장애인의 의사와 선호를 의사결정지원의 우선적 기준으로 강조하는 아일랜드의 제도는 향후 우리 후견제도의 개혁 입법에 중요한 참고자료가 될 것으로 기대된다. The Decision-Making Assistance (Capacity) Act 2015 of Ireland shows how countries are addressing Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which opposes the deprivation of legal capacity for individuals with disabilities. Ireland has introduced two forms of support – “assisted decision-making” and “co-decision-making” – as a transition from substitute decision-making to supported decision-making. It also shifted from a court-centric supervision approach to a self-designed approach by the individuals, with oversight provided by a new administrative body called the Decision Support Service. As the Act underwent a revision in 2022 and the Decision Support Service has provided Codes of Practice detailing the roles of service providers and legal and health professionals, it is essential to study the system from the following perspectives: the details of decision support systems; the safeguard mechanisms for respecting the will and preferences of relevant persons; and the protection against abuses and malpractices. This paper provides an overview of the Decision-Making Assistance (Capacity) Act, focusing on the structure of the decision support system. It examines the criteria for assessing decision-making capacity, as detailed in the Codes of Practices, and analyses the guiding principles of decision-making support. It also delves into the limits and prohibitions in terms of content of the agreements, formal and procedural requirements, as well as the registration procedure and oversight of relevant documents. The Irish system is unique in that it seeks to ensure autonomy for individuals by allowing them to determine whether they will receive decision-making support and to define the scope of the support, even when they are in a state of disability. Taking into account practical challenges, Ireland has maintained a functional model for assessing disabilities. Consequently, the evaluation of decision-making capacity for individuals with disabilities continues to play a significant role, and substitute decision-making methods have been retained although as a last resort. Despite these limitations, Ireland's system, which emphasizes the will and preferences of individuals with disabilities as the primary considerations in supporting decision-making, will serve as crucial reference material for future legislative reforms in the guardianship system of South Korea.

대학생의 진로결정수준과 진로결정 자기효능감, 진로장애, 진로태도성숙 및 영적 안녕과의 관계

황혜리,류수정 한국기독교상담심리학회 2009 한국기독교상담학회지 Vol.18 No.-

The purpose of this present study is to examine the relationship among Career Decision-Making Level, Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy, Career Barrier, Career Attitude Maturity, and Spiritual Well-being among Korean College Students. The correlations among Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy, Career Barrier, Career Attitude Maturity, and Spiritual Well-being were analyzed and gender differences of each variable were studied. This study is aiming to support career development and provide foundational resources for career guidance by suggesting selective diagnosis and treatment according to career development of college students. The data was collected among 800 college students from H university located in P city, Korea. Tests of Career Decision-Making Level, Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy, Career Barrier, Career Attitude Maturity, and Spiritual Well-being were conducted among these subjects. The study examined the following hypotheses analyzing t-test, correlation, and regression by SPSS 15.00 program. Hypothesis1.There are gender differences in Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy, Career Barrier, Career Attitude Maturity, and Spiritual Wellbeing. Hupothesis2. Career Decision-Making Level and Career Barrier are negatively correlated. Hypothesis3.Career Decision-Making Level, Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy, Career Attitude Maturity, and Spiritual Well-being are positively correlated. The results are as follow: First, There are no gender differences in Career Decision-Making Level, Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy, Career Barrier, and Career Attitude Maturity while there is a gender difference in Spiritual Well-being. Second, Career Decision-Making Level and Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy are positively correlated whereas Career Barrier, Career Attitude Maturity, and Spiritual Well-beingare negatively correlated. It is reported that the results and hypothesis in Career Decision- Making Level, Career Decision-Making Self Efficacy and Career are consistent, while the results and hypothesis in Career Attitude Maturity and Spiritual Well-being are inconsistent. Findings of this study suggest that specialized program to develop students’self-efficacy and career attitude maturity by individualized counseling intervention is needed as well as support program to assist students to recognize less career barriers.

다차원적 진로의사결정 과정과 진로미결정 관계에 대한 한국과 미국 대학생 비교

어윤경 한국교육학회 2018 敎育學硏究 Vol.56 No.4

The purpose of this study is to investigate how students’ career decision-making profiles(CDMP) affect their career decision-making difficulties. This study assumed that there would be cultural differences in career decision-making and thus compared the career decision-making processes of college students from Korea and the U.S. The subjects were 115 college students in Korea and 103 college students in the U.S. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to investigate the moderating effect of the nation. The results showed that there are significant differences in the career decision-making profiles of Korean and American college students; the U.S. college students exhibited a more effective career decision-making process than the Korean students. Second, there were no significant differences in the factors of decision-making difficulties, but in the sub-factors, American students had difficulties as a result of personality problems. Meanwhile, Korean students had a lack of information about decision-making process, job information, and inconsistent information. Third, the results did not show us the moderating effect of the nation but Korean students were significantly affected by the inconsistent information. The results suggest that we can find ways to reduce the decision-making difficulties by understanding the level of the career decision-making profiles and the cultural differences between Korea and the U.S. Finally, the interaction between the two did not show a moderating effect, but Korean students were significantly affected by the inconsistent information. The results of this study imply ways of reducing career decision-making difficulties and increasing the career decision-making profiles effectively. 본 연구는 진로의사결정에 대한 최근의 연구동향을 반영하여 이전의 진로의사결정 유형 연구가 아닌 좀 더 다차원적인 접근으로서 진로의사결정 프로파일(CDMP)을 평가하고 진로미결정 요인에 미치는 영향에 대해 분석하였다. 또 문화적인 차이에 기인하여 진로의사결정 과정이 달라질 것이라고 가정하여 한국과 미국 대학생들의 진로의사결정 과정과 진로결정시 겪는 어려움을 비교하였다. 연구대상은 한국 대학생(115명)과 미국 대학생(103명)이었고, 위계적 회귀분석을 활용하여 국가가 두 변인 사이에 조절효과를 보이는지 검증하였다. 분석결과, 한국과 미국 대학생은 진로의사결정 프로파일에서 유의미한 차이를 보였으며 미국 대학생이 한국 대학생들보다 효과적인 진로의사결정 과정을 보였다. 둘째 진로미결정 요인에 있어서는 전체적으로 차이를 보이지는 않았으나 하위요인에서 미국 대학생들이 성격적 문제로 인해 어려움을 겪었고, 한국 대학생들은 의사결정과정에 대한 정보부족, 직업정보부족, 비일관적인 정보로 인해 어려움을 더 겪는 것으로 나타났다. 셋째, 진로의사결정 프로파일이 진로미결정 요인에 미치는 영향에서 전체 진로미결정 요인에 대해서는 국가가 조절효과를 보이지는 않았으나 한국 대학생이 미국 대학생보다 비일관적인 정보로 인해 더 많이 어려움을 걲는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구결과는 효과적으로 진로의사결정을 함으로써 미래 직업생활에서 만족도를 향상시키고 심리적 안정을 도모할 수 있도록 국가간 비교를 통해 진로의사결정 프로파일 수준을 높이고 진로결정에 대한 어려움을 감소시킬 수 있는 방안을 찾고자 했다는 점에서 시사하는 바가 크다.

Persons with Decision-Making Disabilities and Supported Decision-Making in New South Wales, Australia

Malcolm Schyvens 한국후견·신탁연구센터 2018 후견과 신탁 Vol.1 No.1

A person’s ability to determine their own future and to make choices about their own life and circumstances strikes at the very heart of what it means to be human. In recent times, these questions have received a renewed attention and focus, propelled by the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (‘the Convention’), which came into being in 2008. In preparing for this presentation today I have reviewed the Korean Civil Act to gain an understanding of the reformed guardianship jurisdiction which came into operation on 1 July 2013. If my understanding is correct, in Korea, applications can be made to the Family Court seeking orders to resolve many of the many questions I have just raised. In Australia, specialist tribunals predominantly exercise the power to answer these questions, using the framework of substitute decision-making. Such matters are only dealt with by the courts in small numbers. However, the existing substitute decision-making model in Australia, a ‘best interests’ model, has been criticised for being too paternalistic and for taking away the right to self-determination too easily. International law and thinking on the rights of persons with disabilities now favours a model that puts the ‘will, preferences, and rights’ of the person concerned at the centre of the decision-making process. A supported decision-making model is preferred to the current substitute decision-making model, in keeping with the Convention. I have attempted to provide a brief overview of how questions of impaired decision-making capacity and decision making arrangements are currently determined and how it is proposed that they may be answered in the future in Australia. Whilst all Australian jurisdictions continue to operate legal frameworks entrenched in the appointment of a substitute decision-maker, there has been a significant policy shift encouraging those appointed to these roles to engage in supported decision-making whenever possible. This policy shift is not unique to Australia and is occurring in many countries throughout the world. In my view, this is a transition more than a destination. It is a transition that reflects society’s ever developing views as to the capability and the rights of persons with disabilities.

의료인이 인식하는 말기의 적절한 의료적 의사결정 저해요인 분석

조계화,안경주,김균무 한국의료윤리학회 2011 한국의료윤리학회지 Vol.14 No.4

Purpose: This study was designed to identify the impediment factors for end-stage medical decisionmaking as perceived by nurses and physicians in Korea. Method: The subjects in this descriptive exploratory study were 82 nurses and 61 physicians working in university hospitals in the Korean cities of Daegu and Busan. Principal component analysis was implemented in the exploratory factor analysis study, where the eigen value 1 was used for the basis of factor extractor and Varimax rotation was used to divide the factors. The data were analyzed by a SPSS/WIN 15.0 program. Result: The analysis of the impediment factors for end-stage medical decision-making revealed 15 statements and 5 categorized factors: legal compliance, prescriptive health professionals, interpersonal preparation, hospital systems, and ethical belief. These factors explained 66.84% of the total variance. Legal compliance was requested excessive roles and responsibilities of healthcare providers. Prescriptive health professionals were indicated reflection of paternalistic decision making type. Interpersonal preparation was claimed for readiness toward appropriate medical decision making issues among patient,families and healthcare providers. Hospital systems were showed inappropriate management of hospice palliative wards. Ethical belief was determined as an impediment factors for end stage medical decision making. Conclusion: We divided impediment factors for appropriate end stage medical decision-making into 5 separate categories. There is a need for a formation of a decision making system that includes the patient - health professional - family which is based on promoting the free choice of the patient while providing an atmosphere of open communication between health professionals which will facilitate the decision making process. The results of this study may contribute to the development of a new endstage decision-making system that is appropriate for medical care in Korea. Purpose: This study was designed to identify the impediment factors for end-stage medical decisionmaking as perceived by nurses and physicians in Korea. Method: The subjects in this descriptive exploratory study were 82 nurses and 61 physicians working in university hospitals in the Korean cities of Daegu and Busan. Principal component analysis was implemented in the exploratory factor analysis study, where the eigen value 1 was used for the basis of factor extractor and Varimax rotation was used to divide the factors. The data were analyzed by a SPSS/WIN 15.0 program. Result: The analysis of the impediment factors for end-stage medical decision-making revealed 15 statements and 5 categorized factors: legal compliance, prescriptive health professionals, interpersonal preparation, hospital systems, and ethical belief. These factors explained 66.84% of the total variance. Legal compliance was requested excessive roles and responsibilities of healthcare providers. Prescriptive health professionals were indicated reflection of paternalistic decision making type. Interpersonal preparation was claimed for readiness toward appropriate medical decision making issues among patient,families and healthcare providers. Hospital systems were showed inappropriate management of hospice palliative wards. Ethical belief was determined as an impediment factors for end stage medical decision making. Conclusion: We divided impediment factors for appropriate end stage medical decision-making into 5 separate categories. There is a need for a formation of a decision making system that includes the patient - health professional - family which is based on promoting the free choice of the patient while providing an atmosphere of open communication between health professionals which will facilitate the decision making process. The results of this study may contribute to the development of a new endstage decision-making system that is appropriate for medical care in Korea.

초등 사회과 의사결정 학습 연구의 변천과 의사결정모형의 비교

배진숙 한국사회교과교육학회 2008 사회과교육연구 Vol.15 No.1

The purpose of this study is to grasp the essence of decision-making in social studies through the decision-making significance, a change in decision-making research of elementary social studies, and the comparison by type in decision-making models. Given seeing that the objective of social studies is to promote citizenship, the decision-making ability as the quality of citizenship has been thought to be most importantly. Decision-making implies an option among alternative plans, which have diverse properties. And, the emphasis on fostering decision-making ability as the goal of social studies has a significance in a sense that can connect the social awareness and the citizenship most effectively. The decision-making in elementary social studies has been changed little by little even a focus of research as the period is changed. Regarding the decision-making of elementary social studies in the 1970s, as a role of social studies is changed, the decision-making in the objective of social studies came to possess the important portion. And, entering the 1980s, as the decision-making is one part of solution or a thought, the research materials on the detailed process, function and model in decision-making came to appear much. Entering the 1990s, the decision-making came to stress the decision-making as part of educating citizenship. And, in the 2000s, it is being emphasized the process of deliberation, which passed through enough discussion and debate in the decision-making, and students' direct participation in decision-making. Next, the researcher allowed the decision-making model in social studies to be types in problem-centered decision-making model, balanced decision-making model, and reflective decision-making model, and then tried to compare these things. It tried to examine Harvard model by Oliver & Shaver(1966) who stands for the problem-centered decision-making model, the decision-making model by Banks(1973) who stands for the balanced decision-making model, and the decision-making model by Engle & Ochoa(1988) who stands for the reflective decision-making model. When the whole examination is performed on the decision-making process and the decision-making model in social studies based on these findings, the understanding may be helped about the essence of decision-making in social studies and about application of the decision-making learning to the field. 본 연구의 목적은 의사결정의 의미와 초등 사회과 의사결정 연구의 변천 및 사회과 의사결정모형의 유형별 비교를 통하여 사회과 의사결정의 본질을 파악하는 데 있다.사회과교육의 목적을 시민성 함양이라고 볼 때 시민성의 자질로서 의사결정능력을 가장 중요하게 생각해 오고 있다. 의사결정이란 다양한 속성을 지닌 대안들 사이에서 선택을 의미하며 사회과의 목표로서 의사결정능력 육성의 중시는 사회인식과 시민적 자질을 가장 유효하게 연결시킬 수 있다는 점에서 의의를 갖는다. 초등 사회과에서 의사결정은 시대가 변함에 따라 연구의 초점도 약간씩 변하여 왔다. 1970년대에 초등 사회과에서 의사결정은 사회과 역할이 변화함에 따라 사회과의 목표에서 의사결정이 중요한 부분을 차지하게 되었으며 1980년대 들어오면서 의사결정은 문제해결이나 사고의 일부분으로 의사결정의 세부적인 과정, 기능, 모형에 관한 연구물들이 많이 등장하게 되었다. 1990년대 이르러 의사결정은 시민성 교육의 일환으로 의사결정을 강조하게 되었고 2000년대에는 의사결정에서 충분한 토의와 토론을 거친 숙고의 과정과 학생들의 의사결정에 직접적인 참여를 강조하고 있다.다음으로 사회과 의사결정모형을 연구자는 문제 중심적 의사결정모형, 균형적 의사결정모형, 반성적 의사결정모형으로 유형화하고 이들을 비교하여 보았다. 문제 중심적 의사결정모형을 대표하는 Oliver & Shaver(1966)의 하버드 모형, 균형적 의사결정모형을 대표하는 Banks(1973)의 의사결정 모형, 반성적 의사결정모형을 대표하는 Engle & Ochoa(1988)의 의사결정 모형을 검토하여 보았다.이러한 연구의 결과를 밑바탕으로 하여 사회과 의사결정과정, 의사결정모형에 대한 전반적인 검토가 이루어진다면 사회과 의사결정의 본질과 의사결정학습의 현장 적용에 대한 이해를 도울 수 있을 것이다.

중국의 대기정책결정 구조 분석과 한중 협력의 시사점

강택구,심창섭,김예경 한국환경연구원 2020 수시연구보고서 Vol.2020 No.-

Ⅰ. 서론 1. 연구의 필요성 및 목적 □ 본 연구의 목적은 중국 중앙 차원의 대기오염 정책결정에 있어 주요 행위자와 주요 정책결정의 대강을 파악하는 것임 ㅇ 한중 간 최근 현안으로 미세먼지가 논의되면서 중국의 대기정책결정 구조와 과정을 파악할 필요성이 커지면서 중국의 대기 관련 정책결정 구조에 주목 ㅇ 본 연구에서는 중국의 타 분야 정책결정과 관련한 기존 연구 현황에 기초하여 대기정책결정 과정에 대한 전반적인 구조를 살펴보고 주요 행위자들을 밝히는 데 많은 관심을 집중 2. 연구의 내용 및 수행 체계 □ 중국의 정책결정에 대한 학계의 관심은 상당하나 구조와 과정이 상당 부분 암상자라는 점에서 기존 연구들은 많지 않음 ㅇ 기존 연구들 대부분은 중국의 대외정책, 경제 분야에서의 정책결정 체계를 분석하고 있으나 대기관리 정책결정을 본격적으로 다루고 있지 못함 ㅇ 일부 대기관리 정책을 논의한 연구들이 있으나, 중국의 정치체계가 갖는 고유 특성을 이해하지 못하고 단순히 중앙정부 유관부서의 행정조직 체계를 나열하는 데 그침 □ 중국 공산당과 정부 차원의 공식/비공식 기구로 나누어 중앙 차원에서 진행되는 대기 정책결정을 분석 ㅇ 중국 공산당과 국무원의 관계를 중심으로 정책결정을 살펴보고, 법률 제정과 관련한 전국인민대표대회에 대해서는 연구대상에서 제외 ㅇ 본 연구를 통해 우리 정부의 관련 부처들에서 한중 간 대기오염 저감 협력을 위해 중국과의 채널 이용에 참고자료 제공 기대 Ⅱ. 중국 정치체제의 구조와 행위자 1. 중국 정치체제의 기본 구조와 작동 원리 □ 중국은 당-국가의 이원적 정치체제를 기본으로 하고 있으나 사실상 중국 공산당이 국가를 영도하는 구조로 중국의 정치적 주요 행위자는 중국 공산당과 중국 정부 내 행위자로 구분 가능 ㅇ 시진핑 집권 2기에 들어서면서 중국 정치체제 전반에서 당이 모든 정치체제에서 우위에 있으며, ‘당의 지도’를 강화하는 추세 2. 주요 행위자 □ 중국 공산당 내 주요 행위자와 주요 기구로는 다음과 같음 ㅇ 중국 공산당 전국대표대회로 중국 공산당의 최고 권력기구이며, 당 중앙위원회, 중앙정치국과 정치국 상무위원, 중앙서기처, 당 총서기, 당 중앙군사위원회, 중앙기율검사 위위원회 등이 있음 ㅇ 비공식 기구로서 중국의 특수한 일종의 업무방식 중 하나인 영도소조(领导小组)가 있으며, 시진핑 집권 이후 영도소조는 어느 때보다 정책 프로세스에 큰 영향력을 발휘하고 있는 것으로 평가 - 특정 업무의 개시와 조직 및 관련 법규, 프로젝트 등의 제정과 관리를 위해 ‘영도소조’를 구성 ㅇ 2002년 후진타오 총서기 집권 이후부터 개최되고 있는 ‘중앙정치국 집단학습(中央政治局集体学习)’은 중국 지도부가 정기적으로 전문가들의 강연을 통해 국내외 정세를 파악하고 지도부 간 의견을 교류하는 장으로 자리매김함 □ 중국 중앙정부 부처 내 주요 행위자와 주요 기구는 다음과 같음 ㅇ 전국인민의 대표기관으로서 전국인민대표대회, 국가주석, 국가 중앙군사위원회, 국무원, 최고인민법원, 최고인민검찰원이 있음 - 국무원 산하에도 당내와 마찬가지로 비공식 기구로서 영도소조를 두고 있으며, 법정회의 중 하나인 국무원 상무회의를 매주 한 차례 개최하고 있음 3. 중국 정치체제의 주요 특징 □ 상기 논의한 내용에 기초하여 중국 정치체제의 특징을 정리하면 다음과 같음 ㅇ 국가기구에 대한 당의 실질적 영향력 발휘, 당조를 통한 정부 부문에 대한 당의 영향력 유지, 전문가 자문을 반영한 전문 분야에 대한 정책결정을 들 수 있음 Ⅲ. 중국 대기정책결정 주요 행위자 □ 중국은 2018년 3월 제13차 전국인민대표대회에서 수정 헌법을 통과시키면서 기존 헌법 조문에 명기된 ‘물질문명, 정치문명, 정신문명’에 수정 헌법에서는 ‘사회문명’과 ‘생태문명’을 추가 ㅇ 시진핑 집권 다음 해인 2013년 국무원에서 『대기오염방지행동계획(大气污染防治行动计划)』 즉 소위 대기10조 발표, 환경보호법 수정 등 생태환경보호를 위한 일련의 정책들이 발표되고 강력한 집행 추진 ㅇ 2018년 개편된 정부조직법에 따라 기존 환경보호부를 타 부처 관련 기능을 통폐합하면서 ‘생태환경부’로 명칭 변경 ㅇ 환경과 대기관리에 관심을 쏟고 있는 중국의 정책결정을 이해하기 위해서는 결정 과정에 관련된 행위자를 선별하고 이들의 역할을 파악할 필요 1. 중국 공산당 내 주요 행위자와 주요 기구 □ 환경정책과 관련한 담론을 형성하는 역할을 하는 중국 공산당은 정책결정의 권력구조에서 핵심적 위치로서 환경과 대기정책과 관련한 거시적인 전략과 목표 수립을 통해 관련 정책을 수립 ㅇ 후진타오 시기 주요 담론 중 하나인 “과학적 발전관”뿐 아니라 시진핑 시기에 들어 환경정책 주요 담론인 “생태문명 건설”을 제안하고 구축한 것은 공산당 □ 중국의 대기관리를 포함한 경제정책과 공공행정정책의 경우는 국무원 총리 리커창과 한정이 맡고 있음 ㅇ 제1부총리 한정은 거시경제 계획, 정부예산과 구조조정, 경제발전, 사회보장, 에너지, 천연자원, 환경의 업무를 담당하고 있고 국무원 내에서 <징진지 및 주변 지역 대기오염방지 영도소조(京津冀及周边地区大气污染防治领导小组)> 조장도 맡고 있음 □ 2007년 이후부터 중국 공산당 제17기, 제18기 기간 중앙정치국 집단학습은 각각 32회, 43회 개최되었고 생태환경을 주제로 한 회의는 각각 2회 개최되었음 ㅇ 생태환경 주제가 전체 학습 주제에서 차지하는 비중은 각각 6.25%, 4.65%로 낮음 2. 중국 정부 내 주요 행위자와 주요 기구 □ 생태환경부는 2018년 정부 조직 개편에 따라 기존에 다른 부처가 담당해왔던 업무와 기능이 추가되면서 기존 환경보호부에서 생태환경부로 확대·개편 ㅇ 생태환경부는 대기관리에 주요 정부 부처로서 대기 관련 업무는 우리나라 실국장급에 해당하는 대기환경사(大气环境司)에서 담당 ㅇ 환경부 내 2017년 설립된 <대기 심각오염 형성 원인과 관리 해결 영도소조(大气重污染成因与治理攻关领导小组)>의 전반적인 관리하에서 ‘대기 심각오염 형성 원인과 관리 해결 프로젝트(大气重污染成因与治理攻关项目, 이하 대기관리 해결 프로젝트)’를 추진 - 해당 프로젝트를 진행하기 위해 ‘국가 대기오염방지 종합연합센터’ 플랫폼을 구축 □ 국무원 내 비공식 기구로서 ‘징진지 및 주변 지역 대기오염방지 영도소조’가 있음 ㅇ 중국은 2013년 9월 대기오염 개선을 위한 10개항을 담은 소위 「대기 10조」> 등 일련의 조치를 발표하고 조직 정비에도 나섬 - <대기 10조>에 근거하여 2013년 10월 징진지 지역의 대기오염방지 정책을 효율적으로 관리하고 집행하기 위해 베이징시 당위 서기가 주재하는 <징진지 및 주변 지역 대기오염방지 협력소조(京津冀及周边地区大气污染防治协作小组)>를 구성 및 운영 - 이후 중앙정부 차원의 효율적인 대기오염 관리가 필요하다는 인식하에 2018년 7월 해당 <협력소조>를 국무원 부총리이자 중국 공산당 중앙정치국 상무위원인 한정이 조장을 맡도록 하고 국무원 산하의 <징진지 및 주변 지역 대기오염방지 영도소조>로 승격하여 비상설적으로 구성하여 운영 □ <중국 환경과 발전 국제협력위원회(中国环境与发展国际合作委员会, 이하 국협위)>는 1992년 중국정부 비준을 통해 중국 국내외 고위층 인사와 전문가들로 구성된 자문기구 ㅇ 국협위 주석은 국무원 부총리급으로 현재 주석은 국무원 부총리 한정 ㅇ 주요 역할은 국제 환경과 발전 부문에서 성공 경험을 해외와 공유하고 연구를 통해 중국 정부 지도부와 각급 정책결정자들에게 정책적 제언 Ⅳ. 중국 대기정책결정과 시사점 1. 중국 대기정책결정 체계 □ 정책결정 구조를 일반적인 정책 도출 과정인 투입, 과정, 산출과 같은 체계를 통해 정책결정이 이루어지는 것으로 추론하여 정리하면 다음과 같음 ㅇ 대기정책의 주요 담론은 물론 중국 공산당에서 결정하지만, 정책 어젠다 준비는 대기 정책 주관 부서에서 담당하여 정책 입안을 주도 - 생태환경경부 내에 구성된 <영도소조>가 ‘대기관리 해결 프로젝트’를 관장하면서 다양한 정책적 어젠다를 수렴하고 대기정책 어젠다들은 국무원으로 수렴 - 국무원은 각 부처의 의견을 취합하는 업무를 담당하고 내부적으로 책임 부서의 논의와 토론에 기초하여 작성한 의견 수렴 초안(征求意见稿)을 공개하여 의견 수렴 ㅇ 최종안은 중국의 대기정책결정에서 핵심에 해당하는 국무원 산하 <징진지 및 주변지역 대기오염방지 영도소조>에서 논의 - 정책결정 이후 국무원 상무회의에서 관련 사항을 논의한 이후 담당 부처에서 대외적으로 간략한 브리핑을 개최하고 정부 공식 기구 국무원 또는 정부 부처 합동 등의 명의로 발표 - 발표된 중앙 부처 정책에 기초하여 관련 지방의 성급 차원에서도 관련 정책을 발표 2. 중국 대기정책결정 주요 특징 □ 중국 대기정책결정의 주요 특징은 다음과 같음 ㅇ 중국의 대기정책은 형식적으로 정부 차원에서 결정하나 실제로는 중국 정치체제의 특성상 중국 공산당에서 결정하고 있는 것으로 여겨짐 ㅇ 대기정책결정은 당무(黨務) 라인에서 결정되지만, 행정부문 내에서는 생태환경부가 주도적인 역할 ㅇ 정책결정은 하향 방식으로 진행되기보다는 주무 부서인 생태환경부뿐 아니라 관련 부처와 지방 성급에서 어젠다를 마련하여 의견을 제출하면 국무원과 영도소조에서 조율과 협의를 지속적으로 진행 ㅇ 당과 정부 내 주요 지도부들이 맡고 있는 관련 분야는 각자의 전문성을 반영하고 있음 ㅇ 대기오염 관리와 관련한 전문가들의 과학적인 정보에 기반을 두는 정책결정을 도모 3. 시사점 □ 한중 양국 간 대기오염 저감과 환경 협력을 위한 다양한 방안들이 제시될 수 있으나, 우선적으로 필요한 것은 대기오염에 대해 양국 간에 공통된 인식이 상호 정착된 이후에야 양국 간 제도적 협력이 실효적인 효력을 발휘 ㅇ 본 연구 결과에 기초하여 한중 간 대기오염 저감을 위한 협력을 강화하기 위해 제도적 부분을 중심으로 정부 간 협력과 민간 협력을 아래와 같이 제안 □ 정부 간 협력 차원에서 보면, 중국은 여론에 대한 부담감이 상대적으로 적다는 점에서 협상 대상은 중국 지도부에 집중 ㅇ 중국 중앙정부 차원의 대기오염 관리를 위한 중국 고위급 정책결정자들과의 기존 공식적 협력 채널의 강화와 협력 채널의 다양화 ㅇ 기존 한중 간 환경부 장관급 회의와 별도로 상급 협의체 신설 고민 ㅇ 정당(政黨)과 정당 간 인적 네트워크 협력 ㅇ 앞서 제안한 대기오염 저감을 위한 논의 채널의 격상이 여의치 않으면, 영도소조 등과 같은 기구 구성원들과의 인적 네트워크를 구축하는 데 노력 □ 학계를 중심으로 하는 반관반민 수준의 관계 구축을 위한 노력 필요 ㅇ 기존에 존재하는 한중포럼 등의 공식적 접촉의 장을 활용하거나, 인적 네트워크의 확장을 위한 새로운 접촉의 장 마련 4. 연구의 한계 □ 본 연구의 한계는 다음과 같이 지적될 수 있음 ㅇ 중국 대기정책결정 과정에 있어 사례를 이용하여 본 연구의 내용 검증이 필요 ㅇ 본 연구는 중국 중앙정부 차원의 대기정책결정과 관련한 연구로서 중국의 입법 제정 과정을 포함한 전반적인 정책과 법률 제정 과정을 고려하지 못했다는 점에서 향후 보완 필요 ㅇ 전문가 집단 등 시민사회의 정책 결정 참여가 제한적이나마 커지고 있다는 점에서 향후 연구 진행 필요 Ⅰ. Introduction 1. Aims of this study □ The purpose of this study is to roughly understand the air pollution policy decision-making process at the central government level in China. ㅇ More attention is being paid to the structure of China’s air pollution policy decision-making as fine dust is an issue currently being discussed between Korea, China, and Japan. ㅇ As such, there is a growing need to find out about its structure and process. ㅇ This study will examine the overall structure of China’s air pollution policy decision-making process, based on previous studies conducted on China’s policy decision-making processes in other fields, with the focus on identifying the key players. 2. Study content and process □ Although the academic world has much interest in China’s policy decision-making, relatively few studies have been conducted on the subject, as much of the structure and process remains hazy. ㅇ Previous studies mostly analyze China’s policy-making process in the fields of foreign policy and the economy. ㅇ No previous studies have earnestly dealt with China’s air management policy-making. ㅇ Some previous studies discussed certain Chinese air management policies, but these studies lacked an understanding of the unique characteristics of the Chinese political system and simply enumerated agencies in the administrative system of related departments in the central government. □ This study analyzed the air policy decision-making by the central government in the following categories: the Communist Party of China (CPC), and the official/unofficial organizations of the Chinese government. ㅇ This study examined policy decision-making with a focus on the relationship between the CPC and the State Council. The National People’s Congress related to legislation was excluded. ㅇ This study is expected to provide reference data to related departments within the Korean government in using channels to cooperate with China for air pollution reduction in both countries. Ⅱ. The Structure of the Chinese Political System and the Players 1. The basic structure and operation principles of the Chinese political system □ The Chinese political system is based on the party-state dual political system. ㅇ In actuality, the CPC leads the state, and the key political players consist of those in the CPC and those in the Chinese government. ㅇ After Xi Jinping began his second term, the CPC took the lead in the entire Chinese political system and there began a growing trend to strengthen the “leadership of the party.” 2. Key players □ The key players and organizations in the CPC are as follows: ㅇ The CPC National Congress is an organization that holds supreme authority in the CPC, and it consists of the Central Committee, the Politburo, the Politburo Standing Committee, the Central Secretariat, General Secretary, the Central Military Commission, and the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection. ㅇ Unofficial organizations called “Leading Small Groups (LSGs)” are part of China’s special task performance method, and LSGs have been seen to have a greater influence on policy-making than ever before since Xi Jinping started his second term. - LSGs are formed for the launch and organization of specific tasks, as well as the legislation and management of related laws and projects. ㅇ The Group Study Session of the CPC Central Committee’s Political Bureau (政治局集体学习), which has been held periodically since 2002 when Hu Jintao became the General Secretary of the CPC, is a venue in which the Chinese leadership grasps domestic and overseas situations by listening to regular lectures given by experts and exchanging opinions with those experts. □ The key players and bodies in the Chinese central government are as follows: ㅇ Organizations representing the national people include the National People’s Congress (NPC), the president of the People’s Republic of China, the Central Military Commission, the State Council, the Supreme People’s Court, and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate. - The State Council has unofficial LSGs as does the CPC. - The executive meeting of the State Council, one of the court meetings, is held every week. 3. Major characteristics of the Chinese political system □ Based on the discussion above, the characteristics of the Chinese political system can be summarized as follows: ㅇ The CPC exercises substantial influence on state agencies and maintains its influence on the government sector through the party, and policy decisions are made using experts’ advice in areas requiring expertise. Ⅲ. Key Players in China’s Air Policy Decision-Making □ In March of 2018, the 13th National People’s Congress (NPC) approved a constitutional amendment that added “social and ecological” civilizations to “material, political and spiritual” civilizations. ㅇ In 2013, the year after Xi Jinping took office, the State Council issued the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, also referred to as the “Action Plan.” ㅇ China revised the Environmental Protection Law and announced a series of policies to protect the ecological environment, which were strongly enforced. ㅇ According to the revised Government Organization Act of 2018, the Ministry of Environmental Protection was expanded to cover the related functions of other ministries and renamed the Ministry of Ecology and Environment. ㅇ To understand China’s decision-making, which focuses on the environment and air-quality management, we need to identify the players involved in the decision-making process and their roles. 1. Key players in the CPC and major organizations □ Playing the role of forming discourse on environmental policies, the CPC is in the central position of the power structure in policy decision-making. ㅇ The CPC produces related policies based on macroscopic strategies and goals in relation to environmental and air policies. ㅇ The CPC suggested and established not only a “view of scientific development,” one of the major pieces of discourse during the Hu Jintao era, but also “building of an ecological civilization,” a major piece of discourse on environmental policies during the Xi Jinping era. □ China’s economic and public administration policies, which include air-quality management, are managed by Li Keqiang, Premier of the State Council, and Han Zheng. ㅇ Han Zheng, Senior Vice Premier of the State Council, is in charge of affairs relating to macroscopic economic planning, government budget and restructuring, economic development, social security, energy, natural resources, and the environment. ㅇ Han Zheng also serves as the head of the Leading Small Group for Air Pollution Prevention in the Beijing- Tianjin-Hebei Region and Surrounding Areas (京津冀及周边地区大气污染防治领导小组). □ A total of 32 and 43 Group Study Sessions of the CPC Central Committee’s Political Bureau were held respectively in the 17th and 18th CPC Central Committees, which began in 2007. ㅇ There were 2 group study sessions based around ecology and the environment in both the 17th and 18th CPC Central Committees. ㅇ The ecology and environment themes made up 6.25% and 4.65% (low percentages) of all themes in both the 17th and 18th CPC Central Committees. 2. Key players in the Chinese government and major organizations □ As part of the government reorganization of 2018, the Ministry of Environmental Protection was expanded and reorganized to cover the tasks and functions of other ministries and renamed the Ministry of Ecology and Environment. ㅇ The Ministry of Ecology and Environment is responsible for air management, and air affairs are managed by the Air and Environment Officer (大气环境司), a position at the same level as secretaries and directors in the Korean government. ㅇ The Project of Identifying the Causes of Serious Air Pollution Problems and Managing and Solving the Problems (大气重污染成因与治理攻关项目) is managed under the direction of the Leading Small Group for Identifying the Causes of Serious Air Pollution Problems and Managing and Solving the Problems (大气重污染成因与治理攻关领导小组), which was established within the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in 2017. - The National Center for Air Pollution Prevention and Control was established as a platform to manage this project. □ In the State Council, there is an unofficial organization named the Leading Small Group for the Air Pollution Prevention in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region and Surrounding Areas. ㅇ In September of 2013, China issued their so-called “Action Plan,” which includes ten key actions to reduce air pollution, as well as a series of measures, and undertook a reorganization of the structure. - The Cooperative Small Group for the Air Pollution Prevention in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region and Surrounding Areas (京津冀及周边地区大气污染防治协作小组), chaired by Beijing’s Communist Party Secretary, was formed in October of 2013, to effectively manage and implement the air pollution prevention policies in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region based on the aforementioned Action Plan. - Afterward, in July of 2018, Han Zheng, Vice Premier of the State Council and a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, was appointed as the head of the Cooperative Small Group with the awareness that effective air pollution management was necessary at the central government level. - The Cooperative Small Group was upgraded to the Leading Small Group for the Air Pollution Prevention in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region and Surrounding Areas under the State Council. This Leading Small Group was temporarily formed and operated. □ The China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development was founded in 1992 as an advisory body consisting of domestic and international high-ranking officials and experts with the approval of the Chinese government. ㅇ The office of the CCICED Chairperson is a position at the same level as the Vice Premier of the State Council. Currently, Han Zheng, Vice Premier of the State Council, serves as the CCICED Chairperson. ㅇ The major roles of the CCICED include sharing successful experiences with foreign countries in the areas of the international environment and development and providing policy suggestions to the Chinese government leadership and policy makers of different levels. Ⅳ. China’s Air Policy Decision-Making and its Implications 1. China’s air policy decision-making system □ Inferring that China’s decision-making structure takes the form of a general policy-making system that consists of three phases-input, process, and outputs, the system can be summarized as follows: ㅇ The major paths of discourse relating to air policies are decided by the CPC obviously, and air policy agendas are prepared by air policy departments. Those departments also lead the formulation of air policies. - The LSG formed within the Ministry of Ecology and Environment manages the Air Pollution Problem Management and Solving Project and collects various issues to put on their policy agendas. Air policy agendas are automatically created by the State Council. - The State Council is in charge of collecting the opinions of different departments. It releases a draft of collected opinions (征求意见稿), which is prepared internally based on discussions and debates, to collect opinions. ㅇ The final draft is discussed by the Leading Small Group for the Air Pollution Prevention in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region and Surrounding Areas under the State Council, which is a core body in China’s air policy decision-making. - The decision-making is followed by an Executive Meeting of the State Council in which related matters are discussed. After that, related departments hold external briefings and air policies are issued in the name of the State Council or joint government departments, all official government bodies. - Based on the policies issued by departments in the central government, related policies are issued at the provincial level. 2. Major characteristics of China’s air policy decision-making □ The major characteristics of China’s air policy decision-making are as follows: ㅇ Officially, decisions on China’s air policies are supposed to be made by the government; in reality, however, the CPC is thought to be the actual decision maker owing to the distinct characteristics of the Chinese political system. ㅇ Air policy decisions are made in the line of duty. Of administrative departments, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment plays the leading role. ㅇ Air policy decisions are not made in a top-down way. Instead, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, which holds primary responsibility, prepares and submits opinions along with related departments and provincial governments. - The agendas and opinions are coordinated and discussed by the State Council and the LSG. ㅇ The CPC and the leadership of the government have expertise in related fields. ㅇ China intends to make air policy decisions based on scientific information provided by experts in air pollution management. 3. Implications □ Various measures can be suggested for air pollution reduction and Korea-China cooperation. However, the real priority is that the two countries share the same perception on air pollution issues. ㅇ After such a shared perception has been formed, institutional cooperation between the two countries will have a practical effect. ㅇ Based on the results of this study, intergovernmental and civil cooperation focused on institutional aspects to enhance cooperation for air pollution reduction is suggested below. □ For intergovernmental cooperation, it is suggested/recommended that we focus on the Chinese leadership in negotiations as China is under relatively low public pressure. ㅇ Strengthen the existing official channels for cooperation with China’s high-level policy makers for the sake of air pollution management at the central government level and diversify cooperative channels. ㅇ Consider forming a high-level consultative group in addition to the existing minister-level meetings of the Korean and Chinese environment ministers ㅇ Facilitate cooperation based on inter-party human networks ㅇ If it is difficult to upgrade channels for discussing air pollution reduction as suggested above, seek to build human networks with members of Chinese organizations, such as LSGs □ Seek to build relationships that are half-civil and half-governmental in the academic sector ㅇ Utilize the existing official venues of contact, such as Korea-China forums, or make new venues of contact to expand human networks 4. Limitations of this study □ This study has the following limitations. ㅇ The content of this study needs to be verified using cases involving China’s air policy decision-making. ㅇ This study needs to be supplemented in the future because it fails to consider the overall policy and law-making process of China, including the legislation process, although it examines the air policy decision-making at the central government level of China. ㅇ Participation from the Chinese civil society, including expert groups, is limited, yet growing. Therefore, such participation needs to be examined in further studies.

의사결정성이 예비보육교사의 셀프리더십에 미치는 영향

손은주(Son Eun-joo) 학습자중심교과교육학회 2019 학습자중심교과교육연구 Vol.19 No.5

본 연구는 의사결정성이 예비보육교사의 셀프리더십에 미치는 영향력을 분석하여 보육교사로서 전문성을 증진시키는데 기초정보를 제공하는 목적이 있다. 연구대상은 부산시 소재 4년제 대학교 B학과에 재학 중인 1-4학년 학습자 중에서 보육교사를 희망하는 82명이다. 자료 분석은 변인들의 평균과 표준편차를 산출하였고, Person의 적률 상관 계수를 분석하고, 단계적 회귀분석을 실시하였다. 연구결과는 첫째, 예비보육교사 의사결정성의 경향성 분석에서 직관적, 합리적, 의존적, 회피적, 충동적 의사결정 순으로, 셀프리더십에서는 인지적 전략과 행동적 전략 순으로 보통 수준보다 높게 나타났다. 둘째, 예비보육교사의 셀프리더십 전체에 의사결정성 하위 요소는 합리적, 직관적 의사결정 순으로 정적영향을 미치고, 회피적 의사결정은 부적영향을 미친다. 또한 인지적 전략에 직관적, 합리적 의사결정 순으로 영향을 미치 고, 행동적 전략에 합리적, 충동적 의사결정 순으로 정적영향을 미치고, 회피적 의사 결정은 부적으로 영향을 미친다. The purpose of this study is to provide basic information to improve professionalism as a child care teacher by finding out decision - making types that can enhance self -leadership by analyzing the influence of decision - making on the self – leadership. The subjects of this study were 82 students who want to be a child care teachers among 1th to 4th grade students attending 4 - year university B department in Busan city. Data analysis was done by calculating the mean and standard deviation of the variables, analyzing the person s proportionality coefficient and performing a stepwise regression analysis. The results of this study are as follows: First, intuitive, rational, dependent, avoiding, and impulsive decision - making type are the order of preliminary child care teachers decision - making type. And In self - leadership, cognitive strategy and behavioral strategy appeared in order. Second, the preliminary child care teacher s self - leadership has a static effect in the order of rational decision making and intuitive decision making. And evasive decision making influence negatively. Also affects cognitive strategies in the order of intuitive decision making and rational decision making. Rational decision making and impulsive decision making influence the behavioral strategy in order. And evasive decision making influence negatively.