서발터니티(subalternity)라는 방법

김동규 부경대학교 인문사회과학연구소 2023 인문사회과학연구 Vol.24 No.3

이 연구는 새로운 동아시아 담론 생산을 위한 준비 작업이다. 그 첫 번째 과정으로 동아시아 담론 생산을 위한 개념적 수단을 검토하고 있다. 그 개념이 ‘서발터니티’인데, 이 연구는 우선 서발턴 개념과 그 유사개념들을 검토하면서, 이를 ‘서발터니티’라는 개념으로 종합한다. 이 개념을 통해 서구중심적 사유나 유럽중심적 사유로부터 벗어날 수 있다. 아울러 식민/제국의 힘을 의식하면서 이 힘이 서로 다르게 작동했던 지역적 차이도 고려할 수 있다. 이는 서발터니티라는 개념을 통해 동아시아만의 특징을 도출할 수 있다는 뜻이다. 이처럼 다양한 힘의 관계를 검토하기 위해, 이 연구는 ‘변증법적’ 이항대립의 사유실천을 넘어, ‘역학’이라는 개념 전략을 도입한다. 서발터니티라는 개념 안에 이러한 힘들의 역학이 내재되어 있다. 이처럼 서발터니티라는 개념은 외부적으로는 서발터니티를 생산한 폭력의 다양한 정체를 폭로하고, 내부적으로는 서발터니티의 다양성과 차이도 사유할 수 있다. 특히 서발터니티는 자신을 생산한 폭력의 주체나 단위(지역, 국가, 아시아, 지구)의 정체를 폭로함으로써, 이를 비판적으로 전복할 ‘가능성’의 계기도 제공할 수 있다. 이는 곧 서발터니티라는 개념적 전략이 새로운 차이만이 아니라 새로운 보편성을 생산할 수 있음(가능성)을 의미한다. 여기서 중요한 것은 이 모든 것이 취약성에 대한 사유에서 출발한다는 점이다. 이러한 서발터니티가 배제된 존재를 규정하는 인간학적 방법이라면, 이러한 존재가 자리하고 있는 장소와 사회의 정체를 가늠하기 좋은 지정학적 방법이 있을 수 있다. 그것이 바로 ‘방법으로서 관문도시’라는 연구 전략이다. 이 연구는 추후 연구로 서발터니티를 생산하는 대표적인 지정학적 장소로서 ‘관문도시’라는 경계지대 연구를 제안함으로써 연구를 마무리한다. 서발터니티는 배제를 겪고, 그 배제 생산의 구조를 드러내는 인간학적 방법이다. 관문도시는 이러한 서발터니티가 생산되는 정치 역학을 살펴보기에 효과적인 지정학적 장소이다. 따라서 서발터니티와 관문도시 연구의 결합은 장기적으로 새로운 동아시아 담론을 제안할 수 있는 개념적, 방법적 기반이 될 것이다. 이 연구는 이러한 연구 과정의 첫 단계라 할 수 있다. This study is a preparation for the production of a new East Asian discourse. As the first step, conceptual means for producing East Asian discourse are being reviewed. The concept is 'subalternity', and this study first examines the concept of subaltern and its similar concepts, and synthesizes them into the concept of 'subalternity'. Through this concept, it is possible to escape from Western or Eurocentric thinking. In addition, while being conscious of the colonial/imperial power, it is also possible to consider regional differences in which this power operated differently. This means that East Asian characteristics can be derived through the concept of subalternity. In order to examine the relationship between these various powers, this study goes beyond the practice of reasoning of ‘dialectical’ binary opposition and introduces a conceptual strategy as a called ‘dynamics’. The dynamics of these forces are inherent in the concept of subalternity. As such, the concept of subalternity externally exposes the various identities of the violences that produced subalternity, and internally, the diversity and differences of subalternity can also be considered. Especially, subalternity exposes the identity of the subject or units (local, national, regional, global regime) of violence that produced it. Because of this, Subalternity can provide an opportunity to critically overturn the subject or units. This means that the conceptual strategy of subalternity can produce not only new difference but also new universality. If the cocept of subalternity is an anthropological way of defining beings excluded, there may be a efficient geopolitical approach of critically examining the placeness where these beings are located and the identity of society. That is the research strategy of ‘gateway city as a method’. This study is concluded by proposing a border-city study so called ‘gateway city’ as a representative geopolitical place that produces subalternity as a further study. Subalternity is an anthropological method of experiencing exclusion and revealing the structure of the exclusion’s production. A gateway city is an effective geopolitical place to review the political dynamics in which these subalternities are produced. Therefore, the combination of subalternity research and gateway city research will serve as a conceptual and methodological basis for proposing a new East Asian discourse in the long term. This study can be regarded as the first step in this research process.

그람시의 서발턴 개념과 서발턴 연구

金澤賢(Kim Taek-Hyeon) 역사교육연구회 2002 역사교육 Vol.83 No.-

This essay is a critical review of "Antonio Gramsci and the Concept of Subaltern" written by Professor Kang, Ok-Cho. In her article, Kang closely examines the usages and the meanings of the term "subaltern" in Gramsci"s texts, and suggests that historians of Subaltern Studies, although influenced by Gramsci"s Marxism, are misusing the term in some aspects. Her critiques, however, misunderstand the theoretical and political position of Subaltern Studies as a postcolonial criticism. In Subaltern Studies, "subaltern" on the level of theory is not a category to identify a certain real social group and to investigate its nature. Rather, it is a general term to signify a critical position in the relation of power. The historians of Subaltern Studies argue that the historiography of Indian nationalism has long been dominated by elitism and colonialism, presuming exclusively the domain of the elitist politics. Their studies show that vast areas in the life and the consciousness of subaltern classes were never integrated into the elitist hegemony, and that there existed a sharp contrast between the domains of the elite and the subaltern in India during the colonial period. In this sense, elite-subaltern dichotomy (or the concept of subaltern) is a theoretical apparatus which allows the historians of Subaltern Studies to intervene in the Indian nationalist historiography and to criticize its colonial discourse/power. They originally attempted to (re)construct the history of subaltern. Yet their project came to a predicament, that is, the problem of representation as power. As a matter of fact, it was a problem from which they could not escape as long as they tried to reconstruct subaltern"s consciousness and behavior positively. They realized that, as Prakash puts it, the project to retrieve subaltern as a full-blooded subject-agent must fail, for subalternity in itself means a minor position that could not be undone retroactively. As a result, they came to recognize subalternity as an abstraction inferring the intractability inside the dominant discourses. The rethinking of subalternity led them to deconstruct their initial project. Instead of composing the history of subaltern, they now analyze and criticize from the postcolonial perspectives colonial dominant discourses and ideologies of Eurocentrism, Globalization, History as progress, etc. In doing so, they adopt and appropriate the concepts/theories of poststructuralism, on the one hand, as a means of self-critique of the West and of Marxism, on the other hand, to criticize the overwhelming dominant power of capital over the historical, cultural, and economic conditions in the so-called Third World today. Some scholars in our discipline deny the relationship between Subaltern Studies and Marxism. All historians of Subaltern Studies in fact have a Marxist background, both politically and intellectually, and in many ways remain within its problematic. Their postcolonial criticism thus is a revised Marxism in the context of the Third World, or a critical integration of Marxism and poststructuralism.

그람시와 ‘서발턴’ 개념

姜玉楚(Kang Ok-Cho) 역사교육연구회 2002 역사교육 Vol.82 No.-

It is well-known the fact that the Subaltern studies started by postcolonial scholars in India were inspired by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian marxist thinker. While the terminology of "subaltern" was derived from him, the Subaltern studies were deviated from his original concept because Subaltern scholars have depended heavily on the post-structuralist methodology. In Gramsci, subaltern groups include the various social strata alienated in dual sense, that is, those who are not only oppressed by capitalism but also commonly excluded when referring to the "classes" in traditional Marxism. It is because he thought revolutionary movement in Italy cannot succeed with the exclusion of these groups. However the Subaltern scholars in the Third world fail to capture its meaning, accentuating only the static aspect of the subaltern groups. Instead, Gramsci sees the weaknesses and potentials of subaltern groups simultaneously. That"s why he emphasizes the necessity for organic intellectuals to intervene to organize them. Therefore, while interested in the creative spirit of subaltern mass, he rather elaborated on the role of the intellectuals, and focused on what the intellectuals should do for the crack of ruling hegemony and the building of new one throughout his Prison Notebooks. Furthermore, contrary to the negative recognition of the "class" among the Subaltern researchers. Gramsci didn"t seem to consider deserting this term totally. He merely bore in mind that the "fragmentary" and "episodic" characteristic of subaltern groups is different from an image of the proletariat that marxists have envisaged in the mean time. At the same time, he seems to dub "subaltern" as a concept which can be used elastically for multiple progressive stages for subalterns to lead up to a hegemonic class, believing that they can creat a state in some day. In short, "subaltern" was conceived as an antidote against the dogmatic teleology and the evolutionary idealism, contained in marxist vocabulary such as "class", while maintaining the principles of the historical materialism and its revolutionary character.

스피박의 서발턴(하위주체)의 관점에서 바라 본 아시아 여성신학과 민중신학적 담론에 대한 문제 제기

최순양(Soon-Yang Choi) 연세대학교 신과대학(연합신학대학원) 2013 신학논단 Vol.72 No.-

In our history, there have been the people who could not articulate their ideas and voices because they do not know how to be engaged in academically textualized area. We call this people “Min-jung” or the Third world women and so on. In often cases, however, they could be heard and introduced by some intelligent who are interested in these people such as minjung theologians and postcolonial feminists. Thanks to those pioneers, we have achieved so many fruitful liberal and socialized theologies. In spite of the achievements, there has been certain gap between academic world and the real lives of those people. For this reason, this paper raises some issue of ‘reperesentation’ which Gayatry Spivak introduces in order to figure out her postcolonial feminist perspective. Spivak argues that the intelligent who speak for ‘subalterns’ (Spivak’s own term for minjung), violate subaltens’ intention and real voices whether they are aware of it or not. She argues that even radical intelligent such as Marxian and Deleuzians produce a sort of distorted images of ‘subalterns.’ They tend to have some stereotypes and prejudice toward subaltern even in the process of engagement and communication. In this paper, therefore, I have introduced Gayatry Spivak’s theory related to the issue of ‘representation’ and the problems associated to it. I have shown how Spivak pays attention to the “voiceless-ness” of the subaltern and the way in which the intelligent make the voiceless voices to be heard and speak. Additionally, I have dealt with Kwok Puilan’s postcolonial feminist theology and Kwon Jinkwan’s minjung theology focusing on how they represent and articulate the lives and voices of the subaltern in their theological arguments. Finally, I have considered the way in which theologians speaking for the ‘subalterns’ can change our perspectives so that they might listen better to the subalterns’ own voices. In our history, there have been the people who could not articulate their ideas and voices because they do not know how to be engaged in academically textualized area. We call this people “Min-jung” or the Third world women and so on. In often cases, however, they could be heard and introduced by some intelligent who are interested in these people such as minjung theologians and postcolonial feminists. Thanks to those pioneers, we have achieved so many fruitful liberal and socialized theologies. In spite of the achievements, there has been certain gap between academic world and the real lives of those people. For this reason, this paper raises some issue of ‘reperesentation’ which Gayatry Spivak introduces in order to figure out her postcolonial feminist perspective. Spivak argues that the intelligent who speak for ‘subalterns’ (Spivak’s own term for minjung), violate subaltens’ intention and real voices whether they are aware of it or not. She argues that even radical intelligent such as Marxian and Deleuzians produce a sort of distorted images of ‘subalterns.’ They tend to have some stereotypes and prejudice toward subaltern even in the process of engagement and communication. In this paper, therefore, I have introduced Gayatry Spivak’s theory related to the issue of ‘representation’ and the problems associated to it. I have shown how Spivak pays attention to the “voiceless-ness” of the subaltern and the way in which the intelligent make the voiceless voices to be heard and speak. Additionally, I have dealt with Kwok Puilan’s postcolonial feminist theology and Kwon Jinkwan’s minjung theology focusing on how they represent and articulate the lives and voices of the subaltern in their theological arguments. Finally, I have considered the way in which theologians speaking for the ‘subalterns’ can change our perspectives so that they might listen better to the subalterns’ own voices.

서벌턴 여성의 정치적 주체성 형성에 대해서

이유혁(Lee, Yoo-Hyeok) 강원대학교 인문과학연구소 2017 인문과학연구 Vol.0 No.52

이 논문은 서벌턴 여성의 정치적 주체성 형성에 대해서 연구한다. 마하스웨타 데비(Mahasweta Devi)의 단편소설 「풍성한 둘로티」에 나타난 인도의 한 서벌턴 원주민 여성의 비극적인 삶에 주목하며 서벌턴 여성의 몸을 통한 저항의 표시의 문화정치적 의의에 대해서 살펴본다. 또한 이 논문은 데비가 텍스트적 재현을 통해 의도하는 서벌턴의 역사 다시 쓰기와 이러한 시도의 저항적이고 대안적인 가능성에 대해서도 주목한다. 이에 대한 논의는 탈식민적 로컬 역사에 관한 논의와 연결하여 검토된다. 이를 통해 서벌턴 여성(들)의 문화정치적 위치와 그들이 표시하는 저항적 목소리를 통해 재현되고 해석되는 역사 다시 쓰기라는 탈식민적 기획의 문화정치적 의의를 고찰한다. 이를 위해서 먼저 젠더화된 국민국가 건설의 과정이라는 시대적 배경과 인도 국내의 로컬적인 상황에 대한 설명을 통해 원주민들의 사회정치적 위치를 보여준다. 그리고 나서 서벌턴의 정치적 주체성의 형성에 관한 스피박의 논의에 대해 검토하며, 이를 기반으로 하여 데비의 「풍성한 둘로티」에 대해 분석한다. 이를 통해 이 논문은 데비가 자신의 텍스트적 재현을 통해 보여주는 서벌턴의 몸을 통한 차이와 저항의 텍스트 형성의 과정에 주목하고 이것이 드러내는 서벌턴의 탈식민적 로컬리티의 정치지형학의 특징을 밝히고자 한다. This paper examines how a subaltern woman’s political subjectivity can be shaped. The paper analyzes Mahasweta Devi’s short story “Douloti the Bountiful” and considers the cultural-political significance of a subaltern woman’s way of marking resistance through her dying body. The paper also examines the way in which Devi attempts to rewrite subaltern history through her textual representation of subaltern’s tragic lives in postcolonial India and considers how such a way of rewriting subaltern history can serve as a resistant and alternative postcolonial discourse. By relating this topic to studies of postcolonial local history, the paper examines subaltern’s lives not only on a personal and individual level but also on a social and political level, so as to consider the sociopolitical position of subaltern women in their given situation in postcolonial India and the cultural-political significance of Devi’s textual representation of rewriting subaltern history. To this end, the paper focuses on the following several main topics. First, the paper explains the process of gendered nation-building and local situations in that process to show tribals’ sociopolitical position in postcolonial India. Second, the paper critically examines Gayatri Spivak’s writings on subaltern’s political subjectivity, which will provide theoretical ideas to analyze Devi’s text. This study intends to show the political topography of the subaltern’s postcolonial locality Devi represents in her text, and also how a subaltern woman struggles to mark a text of resistance and difference in that situation.

서발턴의 타자성, 새로운 윤리적 감각

이은주(Lee, Eun Ju) 원광대학교 인문학연구소 2017 열린정신 인문학연구 Vol.18 No.1

이 논문에서는 지속적으로 서발턴의 삶과 존재방식에 문제제기를 해온 황정은의 소설을 대상으로 서발턴이 재현되는 양상을 살폈다. 황정은의 텍스트는 폭력적인 도시(개발) 생활과 그 구소 속의 인간에 대한 이야기이다. 그러나 등장인물들은 선하고, 인간관계는 따뜻하여 위안과 희망의 이야기로 평가받는다. 이 논문에서는, 긍정적 전망의 제시, 희망을 상징하는 등장인물 간의 사랑 등이 누구에 의해 말해지며, 그 이야기에 얹혀 있는 찬사와 호평은 누구의 목소리인지 묻고 있다. 서발턴을 재현하는 방식은 『百의 그림자』이후 점차 진화하고 있으며, 「상류엔 맹금류」에서 정점에 도달하고 있다. 지배담론이 전유할 수 없는 타자성 혹은 차이의 지점을 구체적으로 재현해 내기 때문이다. 보이지 않는 것과 보이는 것을 상충하게 만드는 독특한 재현방식은, 합리화되어 왔던 서발턴의 내재적 속성에 균열을 가하는 방식이 되고 있다. 즉 종속성에서 오는 숨겨진 폭력성, 현실감 없는 현실인식, 판단의 부재, 평범함으로 덧칠되어 있는 천박성을 재현하면서도 그에 대한 연민으로 이어질 수 있는 상상력을 차단한다. 그리고 화자는 속악을 합리화하는 생존전략의 부정함, 싫음, 섞이지 않음을 언표화 하는 것으로 서발턴으로서의 저항의지를 보여주며 자신의 자리가 새로 배치될 수 있는 가능성을 보여준다. Discussions on the subaltern have been made in various ways around the texts that feature characters from lower classes such as the general people, the urban poor and workers. Spivak said that the important point in subaltern studies is to reveal the difference from the concept of the subject that pursued totality and homogeneity. This difference can be summarized as a non-visualizable spirit of resistance and its practice, something that the dominant discourse cannot fully appropriate and the otherness (negativity) that resists the capture of the dominant discourse. This study intended to explore the identity of the subaltern in light of their way of existing by determining who speaks of the subaltern, what is spoken of and how it is spoken of, while focusing on Spivak’s view and using the term subaltern to refer to a subordinate position in a broad category. More specifically, the study looked into the aspects of how the subaltern is represented in novels of Hwang Jeong-eun who has consistently raised questions about the lives and ways of existing of the urban subaltern. Hwang’s novels depict a life in a violent city (under development) and human beings living in the structure. However, they present good-natured characters and warm human relationships, which is why they are read as stories of comfort and hope. This study poses questions about who presents such positive prospects, speaks of love between the characters that symbolize hope, and in whose voice the praise and appreciation are given to such stories. In terms of the representation of the subaltern, it gradually evolves after “The Shadow of a Hundred” and reaches the peak in “Raptorial Birds in Upstream,” as the point of otherness or difference that cannot be appropriated by the dominant discourse is represented in a concrete way. It is a unique representation method that puts the invisible and the visible into conflict, which serves as a way of cracking the subalternate intrinsic properties that have been justified. In other words, the author represents thoughtlessness and worldliness and a certain degree of shallowness, while blocking the imagination that can lead to compassion. And the narrator shows the will to resist as a subaltern by enunciating the rejection of the survival strategy that justifies the vulgarity, disliking and not being mixed, which shows the possibility of the relocation of his or her place.

‘서발턴(의) 역사’와 로컬 역사/로컬리티

김택현(Kim Taek-Hyeon) 부산대학교 한국민족문화연구소 2009 로컬리티 인문학 Vol.0 No.2

인도의 서발턴 연구 집단은 식민주의 역사학과 민족주의 역사학에서 배제되어 온 민중을 역사의 주체로 복원하려는 문제의식 아래, 라나지트 구하의 작업이 보여주듯이, 서발턴 농민의 고유한 정치적 주체 의식과 실천을 입증하였다. 그러나 스피박의 개입을 계기로 이들은 역사 주체의 재현 문제와 서발터니티 개념에 대해 재사유하면서, 비서구 지역의 역사 인식을 서발턴화하고 있는 서구 지식/담론의 이데올로기적, 식민주의적 체계의 한계지점에서 통약불가능한 저항적 차이를 강조하는 ‘서발턴 역사’의 가능성을 모색하게 되었다. 인도만의 단독성을 보여주는 서발턴 역사는 인식론적으로 자본주의 세계체제의 지리적 부속물에 불과한 지역사와는 다른 자기 인식을 보여주는 로컬 역사의 일종이라고 할 수 있다. 로컬리티는 전지구적 자본주의 체제 하에서 지정학적으로나 인식론적으로 서발턴 위치에 있는 로컬의 대항적 타자성을 의미하며, 따라서 그것은 서발터니티의 지정학적 표현이다. 미놀료, 끼하노, 두셀, 카티비, 글리상 등은 서발턴 역사집단의 작업과 공명하면서 로컬리티에 대한 새로운 인식을 기반으로 라틴 아메리카 대륙과 마그렙과 마르티니크의 역사들을 새롭게 사유하고자 한다. 근대성과 식민성이 접합된 전지구적 자본주의 체제의 인식론적 작동에 대항하면서 포스트식민적인 로컬 역사의 새로운 인식론을 추구하는 이들의 작업은, 각 지역의 특정한 역사적 경험에서 유래하므로 단독적이지만, 그 지역들에 대한 자본주의의 (신)식민주의적 지배의 보편성으로 인해 전지구성을 띄는 독자적인 개념들을 통해 이루어지고 있다. The early project of Subaltern Studies Group was to retrieve the subject position of the Indian people who had been excluded by the colonialist and nationalist historiographies. Ranajit Guha, a founder of this group, demonstrated the Indian peasant's singular consciousness and agency as the political subject in the history of colonial period. But, owing to the intervention of Gayatri Spivak, they came to rethink the questions such as the discursive representation of the historical subject and the subalternity of the subordinated. Further, they tried to prove the possibility of subaltern histories which would show the recalcitrant, incommensurable differences of the subaltern. While eurocentric History would continue to subalternize and silence the historical conceptions and knowledges produced in the non-West, those differences could resist the incorporating power of the West's ideological discourse/knowledge systems, at their limits. Subaltern history with its Indian singularity could be regarded as a local history. Local histories, at the level of epistemology, distinguish from the area histories, which simply form the geographically composed parts of the capitalist world system. And locality means an absolute otherness of the geopolitically and epistemologically subalternized local within or against the globalizing system of capitalism: it is a geopolitical analogy of subalternity. Sympathizing with Subaltern Studies's project, theorists such as Mignolo, Quijano, Dussel, Khatibi, Glissant etc., try to reconsider the local histories of Latin America, Maghreb, and Martinique with new thoughts of locality. Their researches of new epistemologies for the postcolonial local histories against the unitary history of capitalist modernity/coloniality are based on their respective local conditions, so that their own concepts are specific ones. But, since all of those conditions are derived from the common rule of (neo)colonialism, those concepts hold a globality needed for the subversion of an existing epistemological constellation.

‘서발턴(subaltern)’의 관점에서 본 한국의 자생 신종교 사상 : 수운, 증산, 소태산의 비교를 중심으로

박종천 대진대학교 대순사상학술원 2021 대순사상논총 Vol.37 No.-

근대 한국의 자생 신종교의 창시자인 수운 최제우, 증산 강일순, 소태산 박중빈 등은 모두 몰락한 양반 출신의 ‘잔반’(殘班)으로서, 본격적인 종교활동에 앞서 시골 서당의 훈장, 농민, 장사꾼, 술사(術士) 등의 활동을 통해 생계를 꾸려나갔으며, 상층 양반으로부터 하층 상놈으로 전락하여 주변화된 서발턴적 위상으로 인해 다양한 서발턴들의 표현할 수 없는 염원과 원한을 종교적으로 대표/재현할 수 있었다. 그러나 기성 질서의 질곡을 폭로하고 일탈하면서도 새로운 대안 질서를 이념으로 제시하지 않았던 조선 후기 ‘밀레니엄적 주변종교’ 운동과는 달리, 이들은 모두 지배층의 서발턴적 규제와 억압을 전복시키고 기성질서를 대체할 수 있는 ‘후천개벽’의 새로운 대안적 비전을 체계적으로 제시하고 실천한 ‘유토피아적 대안종교’로서 탈-서발턴(post-subaltern)적 종교를 제시하였다. 이 글에서는 이들의 사상이 서발턴을 대표/재현할 뿐만 아니라 새로운 종교적-사회적 주체로서 탈-서발턴의 사회적 비전을 구현하는 다양한 양상을 비교하여 분석함으로써 근대 한국의 자생적 신종교가 유토피아적 대안종교 사상임을 논증하였다. In early modern Korea, the founders of three main-stream indigenous new religions, Choi Je-woo (崔濟愚), Kang Il-sun (姜一淳), and Park Jungbin (朴重彬), were all ruined yangban, who could no longer maintain the social dignity of yangban. Prior to their regular religious activities, they earned livings as rural teachers, peasants, merchants, and fortune-tellers. They were marginalized for having declined from upper-class nobles to lower-class people. Due to their subalternal status, they religiously represented the inexpressible aspirations and resentments held by various subalterns. The millennial movements of marginal religions in the late Joseon Dynasty exposed and deviated from the fetters of the established order, but they did not propose a new alternative order to replace it. Unlike these millennial movements, Choi Je-woo, Kang Il-sun, and Park Jungbin all proposed utopian visions of post-subalternal alternative religions that systematically presented and practiced new alternative worldviews characterized by the “Great Opening of the Later World (後天開闢).” The world they longed for was one wherein anti-subalternal social regulation were overthrown, the oppression of various subalterns end, and the established social order was replaced. In this article, I have argued that three main-stream indigenous Korean new religions, Donghak (Eastern Learning), the Jeungsan- inspired religious movements, and Wonbulgyo (Won Buddhism) are utopian alternative religions. I made this argument by analyzing some aspects by which they represented subalterns and offered subalterns a new religio-social status.

The Voice of Subalterns in George Ryga's The Ecstasy of Rita Joe: Subaltern Literature Relations in Canadian Indigenous Play

허원재 동국대학교 영어권문화연구소 2020 영어권문화연구 Vol.13 No.2

Postcolonial studies have become one of the most critical academic theories in modern paradigms of philosophy, history, politics, humanities. South Asian studies, Middle East studies, African studies, Caribbean Studies, and Oceanian and Canadian studies are the major socio-geographic realms in the postcolonial studies. Since the last two decades of the 20th century, postcolonial literature opened a new challenging dimension of its applicability in the western modern literal critiques with the concept of subalternity. The subaltern concept increased its momentum as one of the most important subdivisions of postcolonial theory which can be applied in the literal works of either colonial discourses or postcolonial literal disciplines. The literary significance of Canadian indigenous literature in general, especially Canadian indigenous play, has not been drawn much attention not only from the circle of academic study but also from general audience even in Canada until the 1967's centennial independence celebration. The work of George Ryga – The Ecstasy of Rita Joe, which was first staged in November, 1967 in Vancouver Playhouse, ignited the strong catalyst in the conscience of the Canadian dominant Anglo-Frenchruling communities to realize the issues of social justice and inequality of Canadian indigenous people. Ever since, the various aspects of indigenous issues of Canadian First Nations, such as brutal colonial policies, indigenous identities, social justice, racial inequality, female discrimination, and so on, became the mainstream of contemporary themes of Canadian plays. The study pays more attention to the legacy of white dominant colonialism and postcolonial literal critical prospective on Canadian Indigenous subaltern woman in the theatrical play of Canadian Indigenous literature. It also highlights how George Ryga as an immigrant subaltern enacted the sufferings of the indigenous subaltern community. Finally, it provides the analytical and textual evidences for the voice of the subalterns in relation to the representing voice for the subaltern group.

하층민 서사와 주변부 양식의 가능성 -1980년대 논픽션을 중심으로

김성환 ( Sung Hwan Kim ) 한국문학연구학회 2016 현대문학의 연구 Vol.0 No.59

1970년대 이후 논픽션, 수기, 르포 등의 저널리즘 글쓰기는 대중 독자의 수용을 통해 문학의 영역으로 확대되었다. 저널리즘 글쓰기는 새로운 글쓰기 주체와 공동체의 정체성을 구성하기 위해서 문학 양식을 적극 활용했다. 『국토와 민중』이 문학양식으로써 민중과 국토를 발견한 것과 같이 노동자 글쓰기도 노동자 주체와 노동의 의미를 확증하기 위해 운동으로서의 글쓰기를 확대해 나갔다. 1980년대 초 하층민의 문제도 이처럼 글쓰기의 차원에서 펼쳐졌다. 노동자, 농민으로 계층화되지 않는 하층민은 특수성은 고유한 언어와 문학적 양식을 통해 서사를 이루었으며, 하층민 정체성에 부합하는 양식화를 시도한다. 이동철의 『꼬방동네 사람들』은 자신의 체험을 바탕으로 하층민 서사의 가능성을 타진했으며, 양식과 문체의 실험을 통해 주변부 문학의 가능성을 실증했다. 하층민 서사가 거듭되면서 화자는 하층민을 대상화하며 주체와 대상과의 거리를 확대시켰다. 그 결과 『오과부』의 양식은 소설에 근접했으며, 주변부 양식으로서 하층민 서사의 역동성은 약화된다. 구술적 글쓰기가 장편 서사로 전환되자 화자의 위치는 대상과 분리되었다. 그러나 『목동 아줌마』의 경우 거리를 둔 위치에서도 하층민 서사의 양식화를 효과적으로 수행했다. 목동아줌마라는 시점을 유지하면서 하층민의 능동적인 리터러시[literacy]를 확인하며 하층민이 문학적 주체가 될 수 있음을 강조한다. 하층민의 리터러시로 인해 하층민의 다기한 발화들은 하나의 주제 하에서 긴밀하게 배열된다. 하층민 서사를 통제하는 문학적 화자는 르포소설의 근거였다. 유재순의 르포소설은 소설을 표방하면서도 르포의 효과를 적극 활용했다. 논픽션을 소설로 전환하는 과정에서 르포의 사실성과 소설의 상상력은 결합할 수 있었다. 이는 『난지도 사람들』에서 시도되었지만 화자와 대상과의 거리에 매몰되는 한계를 노출하기도 했다. 『여왕벌』에서 보듯, 대상의 특이성과 이를 서술하는 화자의 존재가 강조될 경우 저널리즘 글쓰기의 역동적인 양식적 시도들은 미완인 채로 남았다. The Increase of public readers and popular media drove the increase of novels and journalistic writings for both of them. In the course of modernity of literature, novels and journalistic writings are in complementary relations. The Journalistic writing is a meaningful genre which was generated for the reality and the perspective in the relation of literature and journalism. At the Korean circumstance of 1970s` writings and literature, nonfiction was a leading genre among the journalistic writings. Specially writings on urban subaltern had effects each other and showed a possibility of new style of writings. In 1980`s, many reportages, reportage fictions followed the success of Sons of Darkness(『어둠의 자식들』) which is the first reportage for the narrative of the subaltern in 1970`s. People in a slum(『꼬방동네 사람들』), Five widows(『오과부』), A woman in Mokdong(『목동아줌마』) by Yi, Dong Cheol(이동철), and People in Nanjido(『난지도 사람들』), The Queen Bee(『여왕벌』) by Yu, Jae Sun(유재순) are the most popular narrative of the subaltern. The former is one of the journalistic writings forms, not fiction. But the style is very tough and disorderly, because that works based on the real experiences of writer. He regarded himself as a member of the slum town, and took the consciousness of the subalternity. But when the narrative was going on, the speaker of the narrative became more distant from the objet, and the consciousness of the subalternity was weakened gradually. But A woman in Mokdong(『목동아줌마』) showed the possibility of the peripheral form by verifying the conditions of the subaltern`s utterance and active literacy of the subaltern. People in Nanjido(『난지도 사람들』), Yu, Jae Sun`s works are reportage fictions, or journalistic fictions. But subject matter of her fictions came from her experiences which similar to the journalistic writings. She wrote the fiction for the subaltern in Nanjido, a sanitary landfill. But her works did not make the reality of the subaltern as Yi, Dong Cheol did. Her works just emphasized the existence of a female reportage writer, because female reportage writer was few in 1980s, and existence of a female reportage writer could be in the spotlight. Her works tried a combination of journalistic reality and fictional imaginations, but the result was not inspiring.