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김경록 한국중국학회 2009 중국학보 Vol.60 No.-
丽末鲜初以后,朝鲜时期的国际关系是以明清为中心的朝贡体系为中心而展开的。 与国家的兴亡盛衰相比、 像处于元明交替期的高丽、 处于高丽朝鲜交替期的明和明清交替期的朝鲜一样、 中韩关系可以根据如何认识当时的国际体系和有效运用它的问题、 会产生出各种不同的外交政策。 但是朝鲜却并未考虑当时的国际环境的变化、 只是根据自己内部的传统认识体系来进行思考、 所以它始终未能制定出较为积极主动的外交政策。 虽然朝鲜时期东亚地区的国际关系是以明清等中原王朝为中心的、 但是明代曾经存在过蒙古和女真势力、 清代存在过蒙古和西藏等势力、 这些势力共同创造出了历史发展的活力。 与高丽时期的辽、 金、 元朝那样、 北元势力虽未占据部分或整个中原地区、 但是它为了恢复元帝国的荣耀而不断威胁明朝。 而且在明代中期瓦剌通过向明朝施加政治军事方面的压力、 使明朝的国际影响力大大减少。 随后、 明朝利用蒙古和女真势力在辽东地区发生冲突的良机开发了东八站、 并使那些势力以辽东都司为中心、 在辽东南部地区发挥有限的影响力。 朝鲜虽然确认了明朝在朝贡体系当中对蒙古的关系处于被动的地位、 而且还确认了与自己毗邻的边境地区的局势非常不稳定、 但是却并未能把蒙古和女真当作外交对像。 这就是说、 朝鲜并没能够像高丽那样利用好外交手段开展多元的和灵活多变的外交活动、 而只把明清视为外交对像、 使自己的外交立场变得非常狭窄。 这与高丽时期朝贡体系并未在思想和制度层面呈现出典型的特征、 而到了朝鲜时期以中华思想为中心、 并通过使行来维护的朝贡体系的特征得到了普遍的发扬有关。 高丽承认元朝在政治军事方面确立了霸权地位并构造了一元的朝贡体系、 把事大看作外交行为的准则。 但是高丽在恭愍王时期利用国际形势的变化、 对元朝和明朝实行了双重的外交政策、 不仅在国内确立了巩固的统治权、 而且在辽东地区也增强了自己的影响力。 到了朝鲜建国以后、 那些视性理学为正统思想的统治阶层为了整备以明为中心的朝贡体系、 并在国内确保易姓革命的正当性、 并使儒教思想成为正统的政治理念、 而放弃了现实性的外交举措。 朝鲜并没有从以明为中心的朝贡体系中摆脱出来、 而是更加重视朝贡体系所具有的互利性、 通过把事大认识和对明认识区分开来来开展对明的外交活动。 朝鲜把通过明朝对自己的册封来维护内政的自主性视为能够维护国家安危的最为理想的选择。 在克服壬辰倭乱的过程中明军的参战使朝鲜重新认识到了朝贡体系的互利性质、 并逐渐形成了再造之恩的理念。 这一理念在明清交替期成为了朝鲜应付复杂多变的国际形势时的基本立场。 丙子之役之后、 随着朝鲜逐渐编入以清为中心的朝贡体系、 传统的事大认识逐渐表现为反清意识、 并在国内不断产生出类似‘北伐论’、 ‘对明义理论’、 ‘尊周论’等观念、 但是在现实上却以朝贡体系为中心积极开展对清的外交活动。 朝鲜后期通过使行朝鲜的对清意识逐渐产生了变化。 该变化即是、 朝鲜不仅在外交层面上承认朝贡体系的存在、 而且在意识曾面上也把清视为册封国并把其看作是‘中华’。 到了18世纪末、 朝鲜在华夷论层面上重新认识清朝、 并逐步开展学习清文物的北学运动。 19世纪朝鲜则把清朝看作守护东亚地区国际秩序的国家、 并想和清朝一起共同抵御西欧势力的扩张。 这一系列思想变化的产生一方面是基因于清朝...
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김경록,서준교,백재승,김수웅 대한남성과학회 2014 The World Journal of Men's Health Vol.32 No.2
Purpose: Penile circular fasciocutaneous flap urethroplasty is a useful technique for a long anterior urethral stricture due to the flap’s hairless nature and ample length. We investigated the surgical outcomes of urethroplasty for a complex anterior urethral stricture, performed using a penile circular fasciocutaneous flap.Materials and Methods: Between 2008 and 2013, we performed a retrospective review of 29 patients who underwent urethroplasty using a penile circular fasciocutaneous flap and had at least 6 months of follow-up. A total of 20 cases utilized only a fasciocutaneous flap, while 9 cases combined a fasciocutaneous flap with other surgery. Success was defined as no requirement of additional urethral instrumentation.Results: The overall success rate was 68.9% (20 out of 29 cases) at a median follow-up of 19 months. Furthermore, fasciocutaneous flap urethroplasty rendered the actual stricture-free rate of 79.3%. The location of recurrence was mostly at the junction of the flap. Among 9 surgical failures, 5 cases were treated successfully by using an additional surgical procedure. Fistula repair was needed in 1 case 4 months later. Further, periodic urethral dilation was performed in the remaining 3 cases. The failure rate was significantly higher in patients with suprapubic cystostomy than in patients without suprapubic cystostomy. The most common complication was post-micturition dribbling.Conclusions: Penile circular fasciocutaneous flap urethroplasty is a useful method for the reconstruction of a long anterior urethral stricture. A sufficient healthy margin should be acquired for better surgical results due to the fact that most recurrence occurs at the junction of the flap.
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김경록 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2006 한국문화 Vol.38 No.-
Sahaeng(使行) and Sahaeng record(使行記錄) during the Joseon Dynasty The international relationship in traditional East Asia was based on a Tribute/recognition system(朝貢體制) and was performed through a diplomatic form of sahaeng(使行). The development of an issue, setting diplomatic goals, granting a name of sahaeng, and deciding the right time and size comprised the procedures of sahaeng. Especially, as the governing system of China, after the Ming Dynasty, was strictly based on documentation, the justification of sahaeng for delivering documents of the Joseon Dynasty King was emphasized, while individual diplomatic activities of sahaeng's members were restricted. Due to such restriction, Tongsa(通事), based on language ability, acted as practical diplomats. While the diplomatic role of Tongsa increased, messengers and other staffs had enough time to experience various cultures during the period of sahaeng, and kept these accounts for the sahaeng record(使行記錄). Although Sasinbyeoldan(使臣別單), which is recorded in the diplomatic documentation of Joseon's “Tongmunhwigo(同文彙考)”, was not an official diplomatic document, it had the vale of an official sahaeng record. Sasinbyeoldan consisted of the byeoldan of sasin, the mungyeonsageon(聞見事件) of seojangkwan, and the subon(手本) of yeogkwan, and was not restricted to any method of description. The official sahaeng record submitted to sengjeongwon formed the bases for private sahaeng records that were arranaged by individual sahaeng's members, and the sahaeng's members, who did not have the responsibility to submit records to seungjeongwon, left sahaeng records in collections more freely. Sahaeng records were a kind of an account of one's trip to China. They showed the Joseon-China relationship and the overall cultural exchanges of East Asia in detail. They have meaning in that they show how the sadaebu of Joseon engaged in exchanges with Chinese scholars.
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김경록 동북아역사재단 2009 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.25
The international relationship in traditional East Asia was based on a Tribute system (朝貢體制). Relations with China were carried out in the form of sahaeng (使行) being sent to China and of receive China envoys (使臣接待) coming to Joseon. The development of an issue, settting diplomatic goals, granting a name of sahaeng, and deciding the right time and size comprised the procedures of sahaeng. The administration system of the diplomatic documents proceeded step by step in production, delivery, reception, and custody. They were classified the Joseon and the China document in first stage of reception. On the subject of production, the state document was classified as the institutional and personal things in the era of Ch’ing and Ming. The collection activity of the diplomatic information was related closely to the activity of the diplomacy which is the important with the transmit of the diplomacy document. A diplomacy document’s to reflect the diplomacy policy with the politics situation of China was confidence of a diplomatic information is high. Especially, as the governing system of China, was strictly based on documentation, the justification of sahaeng for delivering documents of the Joseon Dynasty King was emphasized, while individual diplo- matic activities of sahaeng’s members were restricted. Due to such restriction, Tongsa (通事), based on language ability, acted as practical diplomats. While the diplomatic role of Tongsa increased, messengers and other staffs had enough time to experience various cultures during the period of sahaeng, and kept these accounts for the sahaeng record (使行記錄). Although Sasinbyeoldan (使臣別單), which is recorded in the diplomatic documentation of Joseon’s Tongmunhwigo` 『( 同文彙考』). Sasinbyeoldan consisted of the byeoldan of sasin, the mungyeonsageon (聞 見事件) of seojangkwan, and the subon (手本) of yeogkwan (譯官), and was not restricted to any method of description. The official sahaeng record submitted to sengjeongwon (承政院) formed the bases for private sahaeng records that were arranaged by individual sahaeng’s members, and the sahaeng’s members, who did not have the responsibility to submit records to seungjeongwon, left sahaeng records in collections more freely. The service that receive, store and preserve the diplomatic documents hold a key post in Joseon, unlike other state documents. It was important that these documents had a democratic gravity to China. Also, They reflected the decision-making process of foreign policy to China. The document issuance procedures of china was the reception of Joseon. A prompt report was most important in the reception procedures. In order to this purpose, the role of Sunrhyetongsa (先來通事) was emphasized. The preservation was a form of registration, since it was impossible that all documents were preserved. A few forms were organized, such as imun` 『( 吏文』) in the early of Joseon, Seungmunwon deungnok 『`( 承文院謄錄』) in the 15~16th century, and Tongmunhwigo` 『( 同 文彙考』)』in the late of Joseon. While these documents were the original copy, they have historical importance in terms of summarizing the foreign affairs. The storage of diplomatic documents made full use of the foreign affairs, a diplomatic information and policy. Joseon collected a diplomatic information and compiled a collection of diplomatic documents establish efficient diplomacy policy and to deal with the diplomacy affair. 조선시대는 禮적 국제질서 관념과 현실적인 국력을 바탕으로 조공체제의 대중국 관계를 형성하였다. 階序的인 조공체제를 바탕으로 외교제도가 보다 정밀해지는 경향은 조선의 대중국 외교관계를 제한하였다. 그러나 국가이익을 우선시하는 현실 외교관계에서 불시로 발생하는 외교사건에 효율적으로 대응하기 위해서 다양한 외교정보의 수집은 필수사항이었다. 이에 조선은 초기부터 사행이라는 외교제도를 준수하면서 외교정보를 체계적으로 수집하여 이를 분석함으로서 대중국 외교정책의 효율성을 높이고자 하였다. 외교정보는 조선이 대중국 외교사건의 발생에 따라 외교정책을 수립하기 위해 필요한 정보로 다양한 수집경로를 통하여 획득한 각종 정보이다. 외교정보를 통하여 조선은 조공국이 책봉국에 대한 외교라는 제도적 장애를 극복하고, 조선의 국가이익의 극대화라는 외교목적을 달성하기 위한 기초자료로 다양하게 활용하였다. 조선시대 외교정보는 내용, 형태, 수집경로 등에 따라 분류할 수 있다. 외교문서는 상대국에 대한 외교사건, 외교정책, 외교인식, 외교목적 등을 포함하기 때문에 생산에서 보존에 이르는 단계가 매우 중요하게 인식되었다. 또한, 사행은 외교문서를 전달하고, 접수하는 과정에서 다양한 외교정보를 수집하고 이를 정리하여 조선에 보고하였다. 외교정보의 수집활동은 사행활동의 핵심적인 활동으로 외교문서의 전달 및 수집활동과 밀접하게 연관되어 전개되었다. 중국의 정세와 대조선 외교정책을 반영하는 외교문서 자체가 신뢰도 높은 외교정보이며, 이를 접수하는 활동이 바로 외교정보의 수집이라 할 것이다. 또한, 외교문서에 반영되지 않은 외교정보는 사행의 수집활동에 의해 확보되었는데, 사행과정에서 견문하여 파악하기도 하고, 북경에서 중국 관원과 접촉하면서 수집하기도 하였다. 사행활동은 북경에서 회동관의 출입여부에 따라 많은 제약을 받았으며, 외교문서의 전달을 직접 담당하였던 통사의 활동에 많이 의존하였다. 수집된 외교정보는 수시보고와 복명후 보고의 형식문으로 장계 내지 문견사건 등으로 보고되었다. 또한 이들 외교정보는 장기적인 보존체계에 따라 『사건』 같은 등록으로 보존되어 향후 발생할 외교사건에 대한 ‘資考据’의 목적으로 활용되었다. 조선후기에 『동문휘고』 단계에 외교문서와 외교정보는 보존체계가 일원화되었다. 조선은 폭넓은 외교정보를 수집하여 분석함으로서 대중국관계에서 발생하는 외교사건을 합리적으로 대응하여 외교정책을 수립하고 시행하였다. 이는 조선의 대중국관계를 합리적이고 체계적으로 대응하였음을 반영한다.
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