노동조합의 지도력과 젠더정치 : 청계피복노조의 여성지도력 형성시도와 좌절 (1970~1987)

유경순 ( You Gyeong Sun ) 역사문제연구소 2017 역사문제연구 Vol.21 No.2

Among the 30,000 labors working at the Pyounghwa market in 1970's~80's, the women occupied more than 80%. The women labors were treated “unnecessary daughters” in growth process, so received the gender discrimination. Also the wemem were forced to make the ‘sacrifice’ and ‘devotion’ for ‘sons’. Furthermore they internalized them as their ‘femininity’. And the wemen were situated at Subalterns on the gender relationship from the side of the hierarchy in the labor process of the factory work. These gender relationship got led to the Labor Union equally. And in Cheonggye Apparel Labor Union (Cheonggye Labor Union) was formed the gender relationship from the side of the hierarchy consisting of the man leaders and the many women union members. Union leadership, specially union leaders were men labors. They thought the labor union a struggle organization, and them to take the ‘militancy’ under influence of the intellectual. For that reason the men‘s leadership created a conflict continuously about the ’(labor) militancy‘. On the other hand the wemen members of union were mobilized to the organ-ization and struggle of the small group activities, sit-ins, and strikes. In the process the we-men labors were not passive. They advanced to the union leaders, and in addition at-tempted to make the wemen union leaders appear on the union leadership election in 1976 and 1978 for the representation on the interests of wemen labors. And the wemen la-bors organized the ‘Cheonggye reunion’ in 1981 after the compulsory winding-up of un-ion, and the imprisonment of the men leader group. In 1986 they worked on the leader-ship of the closed union. But following the participation of the released men labors, the wemen leadership were set aside on the two period both. This study reviewed by the Oral History whether the gender relationship and the con-sciousness form the side of the hierarchy which Cheonggye labors learned through the family and work place, reproduced in the inside of Union Movement. Nevertherless it was assured that the wemen labors attempted the resist to the gender hierarchy.

교차하는 계층질서가 만들어내는 ‘무지한 스승’의 급진적 서사 :강경애의 『인간문제』

배상미 한국여성문학학회 2021 여성문학연구 Vol.54 No.-

This paper examines the form of hierarchy in Kang Kyŏng-Ae’s novel Ingan Munje (Human Predicament, 1934) by following the approach presented in Caroline Levine’s Forms: Whole, Rhythm, Hierarchy, Network (2015). This study aims to clarify the how the forms of hierarchy works that seek to explain the women within the novels collide with each other, eventually developing into radical politics. Married or pseudo-married women, who have a different social statuses in the village as a wife of a landlord, a concubine of the landlord, and a widow of a servant of the landlord, suffer from similar disadvantages under patriarchal hierarchy; however, the other hierarchy that exists between them prevents them from organizing solidarity. The teenage girls destabilize the class hierarchy between them by using an informal communication style. However, unlike Sŏnbi and Kannani, Okchŏm does not make any solidarity with them to protect her status in Wŏnso. The solidarity between Sŏnbi and Kannani evolves into something that overthrows the previous order. Sŏnbi cultivates her own intellect and reaches a level of intellectual maturity above that of other people in the homogenousclass such as ch’ŏtch’ae. In the end, she suggests a new radical politics that disrupts the dichotomy of class and gender hierarchy. 이 연구는 캐롤라인 레빈의 『형식들: 문학도 사회도 문제는 형식이다』에서 소설에 나타난 형식들로 텍스트를 분석하는 방법 중 특히 계층질서에 주목하여 강경애 장편소설 『인간문제』를 살폈다. 소설 안의 여성 인물들을 설명하는 계층질서 형식들이 서로 충돌하면서 궁극적으로 급진적인 정치로 나아가는 과정은 이 연구가 밝히고자 하는 핵심이었다. 결혼한 여성 혹은 첩들은 공통적으로 가부장적 계층질서에서 열악한 위치에 있지만, 그녀들 사이에 존재하는 다른 계층질서가 그녀들의 연대를 가로막는다. 10대 여성들인 선비, 간난, 옥점이는 비격식체를사용하여 그들 사이의 계층질서를 불확실하게 만든다. 하지만 옥점이는 그녀의 특권을 보장해주는 원소의 계층질서에 천착하여, 기존의 질서를 전복하려는 의도를 가진 선비와 간난이의 연대에 참여하지 못한다. 마지막으로 선비는 스스로 깨우치고 스스로 가르치는 과정을 거쳐 자신이 첫째와 같은 동질적인 계급들보다 더 지적으로 성장하여, 이를 바탕으로 젠더와 자본주의의 계층질서를 방해하는 새로운 급진적 실천으로 나아간다.

조나단 스위프트의 화장방 담론: 여성의 아름다움, 몸, 그리고 젠더 위계

강문순 ( Moon Soon Kang ) 한국영미문화학회 2008 영미문화 Vol.8 No.2

Dressing-rooms undress the hierarchy between men and women in Restoration and eighteenth-century English literature. Although the eighteenth-century witnessed improved material conditions that made women more equal with men, the construction of the dressing-room conceptualized modern gender difference and introduced strategies to facilitate its regulation. This regulation functioned to hold men and women in a strict hierarchy that the dressing-room potentially threatened. The dressing-room first institutionalized privacy for women and foregrounded the possibility that women hid their true selves beneath clothing and cosmetics; but it also evoked a range of connotation that represented female subjects as having access to privileges ordinarily reserved for men. As a private space central for ordering structures outside of it, dressing-room scenes enact a logic that attempts to render women as spectacles and inferior to men, and men as spectators and superior to women. Therefore the trope of the dressing-room stages a profoundly performative structure of gender identity and gender difference that attempts to naturalize this hierarchy. Female subjects need to be watched by masculine subjects because this activity defines them both; yet the very act of observing women is confounded by the introduction of the private dressing-room. The possibility of a closed dressing-room thus gives rise to speculation about what sorts of activities might be happening inside.

1970년대 근대 국가 논리 속에서 장려된 중산층 가정의 욕망과 허상의 젠더성

권현정(Gwon Hyeon Jeong) 한국문학회 2016 韓國文學論叢 Vol.74 No.-

이 연구는 1970년대 중산층이라는 키워드를 중심으로 당대 정권의 정책과 연관하여 김승옥의 「강변부인」을 살펴본 것이다. 중산층 가정의 주거공간, 생활양식은 당대의 근대적 표상으로 제시된다. 이 과정에서 발견되는 중산층(으로)의 욕망은 주체가 느끼는 성적 욕망과도 맥을 같이한다. 이때 주체의 성적 욕망은 한낱 망측한 본능으로만 간주된다. 하지만 작중 말미에서는 결국 그 망측한 욕망이 중산층과 중산층 가정의 허상을 적나라하게 보여주는 장치로 활용된다. 왜냐하면 중산층(으로)의 욕망은 계층 상승을 위해 자신의 몸과 집을 교환가치로 전락시키고, 이 과정에서 가정 또한 불륜의 묵인 및 방관을 통해 가장 불건전한 형태로 유지되기 때문이다. 소설은 위와 같은 당대의 시대상을 대중소설이라는 이름 아래에서 교묘히 드러내고 비웃으며 그 실상을 보여주고 있다. 그런데 여기서 주목해야 할 점은 작중에서 보여주는 중산층의 판타지에는 적나라한 젠더적 위계가 녹아있다는 사실이다. 똑같이 계층 상승의 욕망에서 비롯된 행위임에도 남성의 행위는 건설적인 것으로 여성의 행위는 천박한 것으로 치부되며 젠더적 위계가 나누어지기 때문이다. 이는 중산층의 부조리나 천박한 면모를 여성적인 것과 동일시하는 태도이다. 김승옥은 「강변부인」에서 당대의 질서와 거리를 두고 객관적으로 시대를 읽어내며 통찰하고자 하였다. 하지만 작가 스스로도 젠더적 위계를 통해 개발 이데올로기 담론을 구성하였던 지배 질서의 함정에서는 벗어나지 못하고 소설 속에서 그대로 체화하고 있었던 셈이다. Focusing on a key word of middle-income family in the 1970’s, this study examined 「Mrs. Kangbyun」 of Kim Seung-ok in relation to regime and its policy at that time. Residential space and lifestyle of middle-income family is presented as a modern symbol at that time. In this process, desire for middle-income family goes along with sexual desire the subject had. The sexual desire of the subject is considered only as a vulgar instinct. However, at the finishing part of the novel, the indecent desire is used as a device to represent the delusion of middle-income or middle-income family. It is because desire for middle-income family degrades her body and house as exchange value for class rising and in this process, her family is also maintained in an unwholesome form through connivance and onlooking of infidelity. This novel reveals the reality by skillfully deriding popular vein and mass appeal at that time. On the other hand, the point to notice here is the fact that explicit gender hierarchy is embedded at fantasy of middle-income family disclosed by the novel. Though they are the same behaviors caused by the desire for class rising, the man’s behaviors are considered constructive and the woman’ behaviors are discounted as something vulgar. They are divided due to gender hierarchy. It is because there is an attitude to identify the absurdity or vulgar aspects of middle-income family as feminine things. Kim Seung-ok definitely tried to read the signs of and gain an insight into the time through 「Mrs. Kangbyun」, keeping a distance away from the order at that time. Nevertheless, the author himself is embodied as he is at the novel, not getting away from a trap of the ruling order to compose ideological discourse developed by gender hierarchy.

1960∼80년대 젠더-나이체제와 ‘여성’ 범주의 생산

전희경(Jun, Hee-Kyung) 한국여성학회 2013 한국여성학 Vol.29 No.3

이 글은 한국사회의 변화하는 현실을 분석하고 개입하려는 여성주의 연구의 일환으로, ‘나이’가 젠더 생산과 어떤 관계에 있는가를 질문한다. ‘나이’를 분석 대상으로 위치시키고 구체적인 시.공간 속에서 ‘나이’가 젠더구조와 관련되어 작동하는 방식을 이해하기 위한 틀로서 ‘젠더-나이체제’라는 개념을 제시하고, 이를 통해 근대화 프로젝트가 추진되었던 1960∼1980년대에 어떻게 ‘여성’이라는 범주의 규범성이 생산되었는지를 탐구한다. 산업화 시기 근대화 프로젝트 과정에서 ‘여성’이 호명되고 배치되고 규범화되는 과정은 ‘조국 근대화’, ‘민족중흥의 새 역사 창조’ 등 당시의 지배담론에서 드러나는 역사적 시간성에 대한 특정한 해석에 기반하여 학교, 노동시장, 가족 등의 제도들을 성별과 나이에 따라 구조화하는 일련의 복잡하고도 광범위한 과정을 통해서 이루어 졌다. 근대적 모성이 집중적으로 작용해야 하는 대상이자 민족의 미래의 담지자인 ‘아동’, 경로효친과 장유유서의 유교질서에 기반한 ‘(웃)어른 공경’의 규범화, 경제발전의 동력으로서 민족의 밝은 미래를 책임질 연령대로서의 ‘젊은이(‘산업역군’)’ 등의 연령범주들이 새롭게 호명되었다. 뿐만 아니라 이 시기는 공교육의 확대로 ‘학령기’가 형성되고 근대적 공/사 분리와 가정중심성에 기반한 근대적 핵가족의 이상이 안착됨에 따라 ‘결혼적령기’가 여성의 삶을 규율화하는 나이 규범으로 재정립된 시기이기도 하다. 이 과정에서 젊음/늙음, 성숙/미성숙의 위계는 이미 젠더화되어 있었고, 젊음에서 늙음으로, 미숙에서 성숙으로 가는 나이 듦의 과정은 성별에 따라 다른 궤도를 따르도록 각본화되었다. 즉 ‘여성’ 범주는 젠더-나이체제를 통해 구축되었고, ‘정상적 여성’이라는 규범성은 ‘자연스럽게 나이 드는 것’, ‘나이에 맞게 사는 것’으로서 수용되었다. As a feminist research that is to analyze and to intervene in the changing gender order, this study is questioning about the relationship between ‘age’ and the production of gender. I suggest an analytic concept, “gender-age regime”, to re-conceptualize the ‘age’ as not ‘natural process or asset’ but social construction, and examine how the category ‘Woman’ was produced in 1960’s ∼1980’s South Korea. In these decades, there was an hypermasculine state developmentalism and it promoted ‘Modernizing Project’ so fiercely. “Modernizing our Fatherland” or “Creating New History of National Restoration” are the predominant discourses based on Western modern perspectives on the historical time. It is in this context that the modern institutions-school, labour market, family, state-are structured by gender and age. That was a broad and complicated process, in which many concepts and categories are invented: ‘child’ who is both to be cared by modernized mothering and to be called as ‘national future’, ‘elders’ who is to be treated with honor in the confucian social order, and ‘young adult’ who was named as ‘pillar of industry’. Further, ‘the optimal age for marriage’ settled down as a norm which has disciplined many women’s lives. Women and men were not in the same life trajectory, and the most important thing in ‘Woman’s Life’ was considered to be a mother. In conclusion, the gender category ‘Woman’ has been produced through the ‘gender-age regime’ in the specific historical context, and accepted as ‘natural’ just because the age(ing) is ‘natural’.

일본의 고령자 개호노동에서 젠더구조의 현상과 문제점

박수경(Park, Soo Kyung) 동아시아일본학회 2016 일본문화연구 Vol.0 No.59

본 연구의 목적은 고령자 개호노동에 종사하는 남성근로자들의 경험을 바탕으로 일본개호노동의 젠더구조와 특성을 고찰하는 것이다. 남성개호근로자들은 여성근로자들에 비하여 젠더위계의 상부에 위치하고 있음에도 불구하고, 가족생계부양의 책임수행을 위한 남성성과 개호노동수행의 가치가 충돌하고 있다. 또한 남성이기 때문에 요구되는 직무수행으로 인하여 개호노동은 성별직무분리가 이루어지고 있으며, 젠더간 임금격차의 확대로 이어지고 있다. 이러한 남성들의 경험은 오히려 여성근로자들의 불안정한 지위와 역할을 역설적으로 부각시키고 있다. 젠더의 기대와 책임을 유지한 채로는, 개호노동의 젠더 질서는 계속 재생산 될 것이다. 따라서 본 연구는 고령자 개호노동의 젠더격차를 해소하기 위한 방안으로서 개호노동의 전문성 강화의 필요성을 강조한다. This paper aims to explore the gendered complexities of Japanese elder care work through male care workers’experiences. Although male care workers are higher in the gender hierarchy, their masculinity due to their perception as breadwinners and the value assigned to performing care work have collided. Moreover, male workers are required to perform specific duties, such as physical assistance, which promotes segregation by gender and results in an increasing gender wage gap. Ironically, female workers’ precarious position in the field is brought to the forefront by the experiences of male workers. It is not enough to increase the number of male care workers; gendered expectations or responsibilities must be avoided in order to prevent future prejudice against either gender. Thus, to curtail gender discrepancies, this paper suggests the need to enhance expertise in care work.

일반논문 : 메소아메리카 원주민 여성의 사회적 지위와 역할 -아스테카 제국을 중심으로-

김윤경 ( Yoon Kyung Kim ) 한국서양사학회 2012 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.114

This article aims to analyze the status and roles of Aztec women and to criticize both theories of complementarity and gender hierarchy. First, to approach the status of Aztec women within the categories of "public and private" distorts the reciprocal relationship between men and women. Aztec men did "women`s work" (such as weaving) in the private domain and women participated in the public domain. Although women were excluded from the highest positions of authority, they played key roles in political and economic realms. Second, Aztec women held inheritance rights and had access to property. That allowed them to function independently of their husbands. However, the status and roles of Aztec women depended on their class. Non-elite women (women of pipiltin) didn`t gain property from inheritance, even though they had a legal inheritance right. Third, women and men were treated equally in discourses on marriage and sexuality. Husbands and wives had an essential obligation to obey each other. If a husband or wife committed adultery, both of them were punished by death. Nevertheless, the status and roles of Aztec women declined by the end of the pre-Hispanic period. With the "House of Joy", supervised by the state, gender antagonism emerged. In conclusion, Aztec women were somewhat independent, but the principle of mutual respect between the genders was weakened and gender antagonism emerged during the late period of the Aztec empire.

Motherhood and Wage Discrimination, Evidences from NLSY 1982-2006, United States

최슬기 한국사회학회 2011 韓國社會學 Vol.45 No.3

This article explores the wage gap between mothers and non-mothers, which is called the motherhood wage penalty. Previous researches have focused on the loss of job experience due to motherhood as a key reason of the penalty. On the contrary, this paper focuses on discrimination against motherhood. Using data from the 1982-2006 National Longitudinal Study of Youth with residual analysis, I find that women are experiencing 2% of motherhood wage discrimination per child. It is roughly one-third of the gross motherhood wage penalty. I also find that sizes of the discrimination are different by the location in the occupational hierarchy. Managers/professionals are not suffering from wage discrimination. Whereas, manual workers are suffering from the discrimination, 3% per child. The 69% of the wage gap persists after controlling for productivity measures. Even among laborers and service workers, their penalties are 6% per child and more than 90% of wage gap is attributed to discriminatory factors. It implies that motherhood discrimination persists in spite of the declined gender wage discrimination, especially mothers who does not have authorities nor skills. The discrimination may just be modified or happen at a different boundary, from women vs. men, to mothers vs. non-mothers.

Motherhood and Wage Discrimination, Evidences from NLSY 1982-2006, United States

Seulki Choi 한국사회학회 2011 韓國社會學 Vol.45 No.3

This article explores the wage gap between mothers and non-mothers, which is called the motherhood wage penalty. Previous researches have focused on the loss of job experience due to motherhood as a key reason of the penalty. On the contrary, this paper focuses on discrimination against motherhood. Using data from the 1982-2006 National Longitudinal Study of Youth with residual analysis, I find that women are experiencing 2% of motherhood wage discrimination per child. It is roughly one-third of the gross motherhood wage penalty. I also find that sizes of the discrimination are different by the location in the occupational hierarchy. Managers/professionals are not suffering from wage discrimination. Whereas, manual workers are suffering from the discrimination, 3% per child. The 69% of the wage gap persists after controlling for productivity measures. Even among laborers and service workers, their penalties are 6% per child and more than 90% of wage gap is attributed to discriminatory factors. It implies that motherhood discrimination persists in spite of the declined gender wage discrimination, especially mothers who does not have authorities nor skills. The discrimination may just be modified or happen at a different boundary, from women vs. men, to mothers vs. non-mothers.

Fashioning Eve: Prescribing Femininity in Paradise Lost

선우진 한국고전중세르네상스영문학회 2013 중세근세영문학 Vol.23 No.1

This study on the issue of gender-role in Milton's Paradise Lost involves the ageless debate on the nature and proper role of women. Just as gender oriented criticism has brought the issue of feminity to our attention in our own age, the issues of proper gender-role was debated with comparable vigor during the Early Modern period. And, as I hope to show in the following, Milton's Paradise Lost, particularly with its depiction of Eve, also partakes of this debate. In the poem, a pre-lapsarian Eve is initially portrayed as an inquisitive and intelligent individual who exhibits a strong and independent personality. As such, Eve is indicative of a women who would not submit to patriarchal authority but instead raises questions about the patriarchal hierarchial and in effect subverting it to a degree. In the latter part of the poem, particularly during the reconciliation scene of Book 10, however, the post-lapsarian Eve displays yet another side of her that is contradictory to her earlier individualistic self, something that amounts to a model of feminine obedience. And, as I hope to show in the following, this contrasting image of an individualistic Eve who is associated with the Fall and then the later image of a penitent and obedient Eve being juxtaposed with the story of reconciliation and redemption suggests that Milton in Paradise Lost is attempting to fashion Eve in the image of an ideal feminine, prescribing qualities above all of obedience, passivity and deference in a woman, a model to which women were taught to emulate during the period.