개항기 한국에 관한 기록을 남긴 서양인의 서지학적 특징 분석 -방문시기별 국적을 중심으로 한 서지학적 특징-

이수기 한국외국어대학교 정보·기록학연구소 2019 기록과 정보·문화 연구 Vol.- No.8

This researcher will look at the bibliographical features of 51 Westerners who visited Korea or left their books at the opening of the port, focusing on nationality by visiting period of visit. focusing on 51 Westerners who visited Korea or left their books. This is why researchers want to help Westerners study their perceptions of Korea through their book features. Western books from the America and France have been introduced and read to Westerners in Western Europe (British, German, Italian, Swedish, etc.) and Central European (Hungary) countries. The books show that Westerners played a role in shaping their perception of Korea. Typical examples are those of American Griffis and French Dallet. The books have been made known to Western countries over and over again. The researcher believes that the contents of the book about Korea clearly played a role in shaping the Korean perception of Westerners interested in Korea. While analyzing the trend of Westerners' perception of Korea, we found some commonalities among countries. The first is the case of the United States and France. What they have in common is that up until the 1890s, people with jobs in diplomacy and religion visited Korea, and since the 1900s, people with various jobs have visited Korea. Second is the United States and Canada, both of which dispatched missionaries and medical missionaries at the same time. Third is the case of England and Germany. In the first half of the 1880s, both countries signed treaties to dispatch diplomats, and in the 1900s, journalists and correspondents were dispatched. Along with these similarities, there are expressions commonly used from the opening period to before the Japanese colonial period. It's Griffith's 'The Hermit Nation' and Lowell's 'The Land of the Morning Calm.' Given that this expression from the 1880s was used until the 1900s, I think it has become a pronoun or a proper noun to refer to Korea. 본 연구자는 개항기 한국을 방문하거나 저서를 남긴 서양인 51명을 중심으로 하여 방문시기별 국적을 중심으로 한 서지학적 특징을 살펴보고자 한다. 그리하여 이후 연구자들이 서양인들의 서지학적 특징을 통해 서양인의 한국에 대한 인식을 연구하는데 보탬이 되고자 한다. 미국과 프랑스의 서양인 저서들이 서유럽(영국․독일․이탈리아․스웨덴 등) 국가들과 중부유럽(헝가리) 국가의 서양인들에게 소개되어 읽혔다. 이 책들은 서양인들이 한국에 대한 인식을 형성하는데 역할을 했음을 알 수 있다. 대표적으로 미국인 그리피스의 저서와 프랑스인 달레의 저서를 들 수 있다. 이 책들은 재판을 거듭하면서 서양 국가들에게 알려졌다. 본 연구자는 그 책에 쓰인 한국에 관한 내용들이 한국에 관심을 가진 서양인들의 한국 인식을 형성하는데 분명히 역할을 했다고 생각한다. 서양인 저서를 통해 한국 인식에 대한 흐름을 분석하면서 나라별 공통점을 발견하였다. 첫 번째로 미국과 프랑스의 경우이다. 이들의 공통점은 1890년대까지 외교와 종교 분야의 직업을 가진 사람들이 한국을 방문하였고, 1900년대 이후 다양한 직업을 가진 사람들이 한국을 방문하였다는 것이다. 두 번째로 미국과 캐나다인데, 두 나라 모두 같은 시기에 선교사와 의료선교사를 파견하였다는 점이다. 세 번째로 영국과 독일의 경우이다. 1880년대 전반에 두 나라 모두 조약을 체결하여 외교관을 파견하였고, 1900년대에는 기자와 특파원을 파견하였다는 사실이다. 이러한 공통점과 함께 개항 초기부터 일제 시기 전까지 공통적으로 사용된 표현이 있다. 그것은 그리피스의 ‘은자의 나라’와 로웰의 ‘고요한 아침의 나라’라는 표현이다. 1880년대 보인 이 표현이 1900년대까지도 쓰인 것으로 보아 한국을 지칭하는 대명사 또는 고유명사화 된 것이라고 생각한다.

서양인이 본 한국의 세시풍속

서영수 ( Young Soo Seo ),장두식 ( Du Sik Chang ) 단국사학회 2013 史學志 Vol.46 No.-

본고는 개화기에서 일제강점기까지 서양인들의 여행기에 등장하는 한국의 세시풍속 이미지를 살피는데 목적이 있다. 이는 한국 세시풍속의 지속과 변용 양상 연구의 일환이다. 대다수 서양인들이 한국을 바라보는 시각 속에는 기본적으로 오리 엔탈리즘이 담겨 있었다. 그런데 한국에서 활동하던 선교사들과 대다수 여행객들은 한국에 대해서 온정주의적인 시각을 가지고 있었다. 그리하여 그들의 한국에 대한 기록에는 우월의식은 담겨 있으나 제국주의적 오리엔탈리즘이 가지고 있는 차별의식은 그렇게 강하게 드러나지 않았다. 서양인들은 한국의 세시풍속을 일생의례나 민간신앙처럼 부정적으로 인식을 하지 않았고, 석전과 같은 호전적인 놀이조차 스포츠로 인식하기도 했다. 또한 설날의 밀린 빚 갚기나 희생인형 버리기, 개성의 단오날은 ``신부의 날``로서 가부장적 제도 속에 속박 받고 있었던 여성들의 해방일이었다는 기록은 지금은 계승이 끊긴 세시풍속에 대한 묘사인데 이러한 기록들은 세시풍속의 전통을 복원하는데 중요한 사료가 될 수 있다. 서양인들은 세시풍속과 놀이를 통하여 정체와 은둔이라는 담론으로 이해해 왔던 한국인과 한국문화를 새롭게 인식하고 있었다. The goal of this paper is to examine the images of Korea`s seasonal customs appearing in westerner`s travel records. It is a part of serial researches on the continual and transformative aspects of Korea`s seasonal customs. The perspectives from which most westerners see Korea basically contain orientalism. However, missionaries residing in Korea and most foreign travelers had paternalistic perspective toward Korea. Indeed, their records about Korea contain some sense of superiority, but do not show strong sense of discrimination derived from imperial orientalism. Westerners did not perceive Korea`s seasonal customs as negative as they perceived life-span customs or folk-religions; and they understood even ``seokjeon(stone fight)``, a very violent game, as a mere sport. The records about paying delayed debts in new-year`s day, about abandoning sacrifice dolls, and about Gaeseong`s Dan-o which was celebrated as ``bride`s day`` for the liberation of women under the pressure of patriarchal system were the descriptions of lost customs; and these records can be important materials to restore the tradition of such seasonal customs. Westerners brought up new perspectives on Koreans and Korean culture which had been previously understood within the discourse of stagnant and seclusion.

19세기 말~20세기 초 서양인(西洋人)이 본 한국어(韓國語)와 한자(漢字)

이상현(李祥賢) ( Lee¸ Sang-hyun ) 한국어문교육연구회 2020 어문연구(語文硏究) Vol.48 No.4

본고는 한국의 門戶開放 이후 한국어와 한국 문헌자료를 직접 접촉할 수 있었던 서양인의 한자[한문]에 관한 논의들을 살폈다. 19세기 말 유럽 동양학자 쿠랑은 한국어와 한국문학 속 한자 및 한문 표현의 비중이 매우 큰 사실과 함께, 한문의 해당 한자음을 그대로 읽으며 본래 통사구조 그 자체로 독해하는 한국인의 音讀 방식을 주목했다. 그는 한국의 國漢文體를 볼 수 없었고 한국인의 한자, 한문에 대한 수용방식을 일본에 비해 매우 비주체적인 실천으로 인식했다. 헐버트를 비롯한 한국 개신교선교사 역시 한국의 한자, 한문에 관해서는 비판적인 시각을 견지했다. 그렇지만 그들은 특히 한국의 漢字語에 대하여, 과거 서양인들과 다른 태도와 모습을 보여주었다. 그들은 한국인에게 한국어로 복음을 전해주어야 했다. 또한 20세기 초 한국어와 한글은 한국의 國民語로 새롭게 발전하고 있었다. 따라서 개신교 선교사들은 한자를 적극적으로 활용했다. 즉, 한국의 한자를 한국어 正書法의 길잡이로 활용했으며, 國漢文體를 그들의 문서선교를 위해 채택했다. This article examined westerner’s recognition of Korean and Chinese Characters in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. In particular, after Korea opened up its culture and literature, focus was placed on discussions regarding the Chinese characters [Chinese] of European Oriental scholars and Korean Protestant missionaries who were able to directly come into contact with Korean literature material. At the end of the 19th century, the European Orientalist Maurice Courant noted that a large proportion of the Korean language and Korean literature was occupied by Chinese characters and Chinese expressions. In addition, he made note of the reading methods of Koreans through which they vocally read relevant Chinese characters as they are and read them in their original syntactic structures. This was compared to the Japanese method of rendering Chinese characters through which Chinese characters are rearranged into the syntactic structure of their own language and in which individual Chinese characters are interpreted through their native tongue. Therefore, the Korean acceptance method of Chinese characters and Chinese was perceived to be an extremely non-mainstream practice compared to that of Japan. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Korean Protestant missionaries, including Homer Bezaleel Hulbert, also displayed critical views on the Chinese characters and Chinese of Korea. However, they showed an attitude and appearance that differed from those of other Westerners of the past regarding the Chinese characters and Chinese of Korea. This is because, to them, the Korean language did not exist only in terms of academic discourse. They had to minis-ter the gospel to Koreans in the Korean language. Also, the Korean language and Hangeul in the 20th century were newly developing as the national language of Korea. At this, Protestant missionaries utilized the Chinese characters of Korea as guides to orthography and selected a Korean -Chinese style of writing as their literary mission method.

한국시가(詩歌)에 대한 구한말 서양인들의 고찰과 인식 -James Scarth Gale을 중심으로-

김승우 ( Seung U Kim ) 민족어문학회 2011 어문논집 Vol.- No.64

이 논문은 구한말 선교사들을 비롯한 서양인들의 한국문학 관련 기록, 특히 詩歌 관련 논의들을 분석·검토하는 데 목적을 둔다. 1880년대 이전 서양 관찰자들의 기록에서는 대개 한국문학에 대한 폄시적 견해가 발견된다. 한국에 어떠한 종류의 연희문화도 일반화되어 있지 않다는 견문을 바탕으로 한국의 문학은 기형적이고 원시적인 수준에 머물러 있다고 결론지은 오페르트(Ernest J. Oppert)나, 한국인들 사이에 자국어에 대한 멸시가 존재하는데다가 작품 창작 역시 한문 위주로만 이루어지고 있기에 한국 고유의 문학이란 희작적 성격의 것밖에는 발견되지 않는다는 견해를 내비친 그리피스(William E. Griffis)의 사례가 대표적이다. 반면, 1880년대 이후 한국에 직접 들어와 활동하던 서양인들이 많아지면서 한국을 관찰하는 그들의 시각도 한층 정밀해진다. 이 시기 입국한 서양인들 가운데 특히 한국의 역사와 문화에 대한 연구 분야에서 중대한 업적을 남긴 인물이 제임스 게일(James S. Gale)이다. 게일은 조선후기 목판본 가집 『南薰太平歌』를 통해 한국의 시조를 접하게 되면서 소재 시조 작품을 영역하여 소개하고, 이를 바탕으로 한국의 시와 문학에 대한 자신의 견해를 잡지에 기고하기도 한다. 그는 알레고리와 은유를 한국시의 특징으로 지적하는데, 이렇듯 시조를 통해 촉발된 한국문학에 대한 그의 관심은 그러나 1900년 무렵을 지나면서 완연히 한문 문헌에 대한 탐독으로 경사된다. 한글로 작성된 작품들은 한자어가 다수 포함되거나 한문으로 이루어진 작품들에 비해 표현이 조잡하고 내용 또한 크게 빈약하다고 보았던 것이다. 이러한 논리는 결국 한국의 문학이란 중국문학의 전범을 따른 사례들, 즉 한문학 작품 이외에는 크게 주목할 만한 것이 없다는 시각으로 귀결되기에 이른다. 더 나아가 그는 한국문화의 본령이자 특장이라 여겼던 중국적 특질이 20세기 들어 점차 사라져 가고 있다고 개탄하기도 한다. 이에 따라 게일은 『東國李相國集』 소재의 한시 작품을 영역하여 출판하는 것을 자신의 마지막 과업으로 생각하였으나, 중국문학과 크게 다를 것이 없는 한국문학의 면면으로는 서구 독자들에게 어떠한 관심도 끌기 어려웠기에, 결국 게일의 번역 원고는 끝내 출판될 수 없었고, 한국에 대해 40년간 지속해 왔던 그의 연구 역시 서구인들에게 뚜렷이 계승되지 못한 채 오랜 기간 잊히게 된다. 한편, 게일과 더불어 한국문학에 대한 고찰과 논의를 주도했던 구한말의 또 다른 선교사 호머 헐버트(Homer B. Hulbert)는 여러 측면에서 게일과는 대척적인 견해를 표명하였기에 양자의 관점을 비교 분석하는 작업이 필요하다. 헐버트에 대해서는 후고에서 논의를 이어가고자 한다. This paper is aimed on looking into Westerners` writings on Korean literature - especially on Korean poetry in the period of the Greater Korean Empire. Both Ernst J. Oppert and William E. Griffis who experienced Korea indirectly through China or Japan in 1870s gave negative views on Korean Literature in their books. That is, Oppert concluded that Korean literature was inferior and undeveloped, for Koreans didn`t have any concrete dramatic art forms while even Chinese and Japanese had several of them. Similarly, Griffis also wrote that Korean people much preferred composing in Chinese characters; as a result, no serious verses in Korean language could be found. On the other hand, James S. Gale, a renowned missionary from Canada, who stayed in Korea from 1888 to 1927, produced more scholastic achievements in the studies of Korean poetry as well as Korean history and culture. After encountering and looking through Namhuntaepyeongga(南薰太平歌), an anthology mainly composed of Sijo(時調) and printed in the mid-19th century, he translated the verses from it in English and presented his viewpoints of Korean poetry and literature in the Korean Repository in 1895, where he pointed out suggestiveness and allegory as the characteristics of Korean literature. However, his interest in Sijo and Korean vernacular verses moved soon to Korean works in Chinese, and he started to think that literary works in Korean vernacular were much coarser than those in Chinese. As a result, he focused on translating Korean works in Chinese instead. Especially, Gale intented to publish his translations of the verses in Donggukisanggukjip(東國李相國集) in his later years in England, but his manuscripts could not finally come out because few westerners were interested in Korean verses which looked like almost the same as Chinese ones. Another missionary, Homer B. Hulbert, who leaded the studies on Korean culture among westerners in Korea in the period of the Greater Korean Empire, also presented his views on Korean poetry and literature, which conflicts with Gales`. Hulbert`s writings on Korean literature will be reviewed in the following paper.

19세기 말 서구인의 경판본 소설에 대한 인식 연구

서혜은 동양고전학회 2024 東洋古典硏究 Vol.- No.94

The purpose of this study is to examine the perception of Seoul block printed novels by westerners Plancy, Courant, Aston, Allen, and Landis who stayed in Korea in the late 19th century. The results of the study are summarized and presented as follows. First, Plancy, Courant and Aston recognized Seoul block printed novels as cultural assets worth preserving and studying. Aston, Allen, and Landis attempted to understand nationality through Korean narrative literatures. For this reason, they were able to form an awareness of Seoul block printed novels. Second, Plancy and Courant perceive Seoul block printed novels as cultural assets worthy of preservation and study. Aston and Courant perceive as vulgar popular literature based on Chinese literature. Allen perceives commercial publications targeting westerners. And Landis perceives object of study about Far East Asia for missionary purposes. Third, Aston and Courant's perception of light edition novels has limitations due to lack of expertise. But Plancy, Allen and Landis can be given the significance of proving the world literary value of novels in the late 19th century.

開化期의 몇몇 西洋人과 한국어음운론

정인호 우리말글학회 2014 우리말 글 Vol.62 No.-

본고에서는 개화기 서양인들의 관찰 속에 드러난 한국어의 음운론적 특징에 대해 알아본다. 음운목록 및 그 음가는 현대국어와 크게 다르지 않다. 다만 모음의 음가를 면밀하게 검토해 본 결과 ‘외, 위’의 음성 실현은 단순하지 않음을 확인할 수 있다. 음운배열과 관련된 특징으로 3가지를 검토한다. ㉮ 음절말의 ‘ㅅ’은 ‘ㄷ’으로 발음되지만 또다른 ‘ㅅ’이 후행하면 ‘ㄷ’이 아닌 ‘ㅅ’으로 발음된다. ㉯ 음절말의 ‘ㄹ’은 후행음절이 ‘ㅎ’으로 시작할 때 ‘r’로 실현된다. ㉰ 음절말 자음군으로 ‘ㄺ, ㄼ, (ㄻ)’이 가능하다. 특징적인 음운과정으로 ‘움라우트, j계 상승이중모음의 변화’을 검토한다. 먼저 움라우트형이 ‘Vi’로 표기된 경우가 많이 있는데 이는 이중모음의 단모음화 및 움라우트의 성격 규정과 관련해서 논란을 일으킬 수 있다. 다음으로 j계 상승이중모음은 변자음 뒤에서는 단모음으로 축약되며 ‘ㅅ, ㅈ’ 뒤에서는 탈락하는 변화가 꽤 활발하다. This study aims to investigate Korean phonological features revealed by several westerners' observations at the Period of Enlightenment. In respect to phonological inventory and phonetic values of phonemes, Korean of the Period of Enlightenment and Current Korean are much alike. Phonotactic features are as follows; ⓐ Syllable-final consonant 'ㅅ(s)' has, generally, the sound of 't', but it becomes 's' before another 's'. ⓑ ‘ㄹ(l)’ has the sound of [r] when between a vowel and the ‘ㅎ(h)’. ⓒ As finals, double consonants are possible: lk, lp, and (lm). As characteristic phonological process, there are 'umlaut' and 'change of j-type rising-diphthongs'.

조선시대 민중의 이국관과 풍속상 - 지옥계불화 감로탱화를 중심으로 -

박화진 동북아시아문화학회 2010 동북아 문화연구 Vol.1 No.25

The aim of this paper is to inspect closely the exotic idea and genre of Joseon Dynasty's popular. It has been generally known that Joseon Dynasty's people had not been kept in touch with westerner by Hendrik Hamel's drifting to Joseon. That is 1653 year when he was drifted Jeju Island. But a new historical evidence could be found. Because some westerners who wore a frilly clothes in 1591's amrita painting. Mostly Joseon Dynasty's buddhist painting had been was connected with the culture of the mass of the people, therefore we could think a possibility which the westerner's visit came more earlier than the early of 17th century. The amrita painting is Korea's characteristic arts. Besides many traditional culture and popular things were described in the amrita painting of the late Joseon Dynasty. The hell was expressed pleasantry in the amrita painting of the late Joseon Dynasty. There are many Korean which were worn korean traditional clothes and played some folk games as if they went shopping in market places. Any scares and horrors were not founded. That is very interesting sights. Between 16th century and 19th century in amrita painting the difference was rich in popular and vitality of the masses.

근대 시기의 사진기록에 나타난 한국 이미지의 정형성

박평종 ( Pyung Jong Park ) 한국사진학회 2009 AURA Vol.0 No.20

Before Japan`s colonial rule of Korea, most of the modern Korean images were produced by Westerners traveled to Korea after Korea`s opening a port. The westerners who kept account of their trip had have various occupations as geographer, folklorist, soldier, journalist, traveler and so on. However they stayed for only a short period from a week to a month. Therefore, it was difficult for them to keep a record of varied korean life of those times as royal family`s or women`s appearances, the life of the common people, traditional ceremonies, etc. As a result, they couldn`t help buying photos in the locale for using them to their needs. As travelers couldn`t take pictures of their needs, they purchased the locale photos and inserted them in their own travel books or magazines. Also, because of the fact that foreigners couldn`t access easily to the intimate korean life, the rare genre photographs which were regarded as emblematic of the korean life were highly marketable. Many travelers preferred to use these photographs and introduced them to the Occident. So these photographs became solid as an image of modern Korea to the Westerners.

동시대인들의 역사적 경험들 -함풍(咸豊) 4년(年) 천지회(天地會) 반란(叛亂)의 사례-

( Pyong Soo Lee ) 수선사학회 2013 史林 Vol.0 No.46

This paper is based on the 1854 Tiandihui Revolt as example, through this case, we can see the historical experiences of the various contemporaries. Through this work, I finally analysis how can the contemporaries understood and evaluated this revolt. In order to successfully analyze, we should divide the various contemporaries into four groups. First is Tiandihui` member. They based on Hong Bing identity, it`s political goal “Opposing the Qing and Restoring the Ming” also originated it, and then they carried out large-scale revolt. It is a typical of “To rebel is Justified” idiom. Second is local officials and gentleman. They thoght the emperor had not lost his morality, and all the people got the emperor`s kindness, so Tiandihui have no any right of revolt. Therefore local officials and gentlemen`s repression also have their reasons. Third is the clan. It is such as “Misery and Happiness have no door” an idiom, the clan edit genealogy, and warn future generations do not confuse or participate in large-scale revolt later in order to preserve and develop their clan. Finally is westerner. Their understanding and evaluation are very various interestingly. Some westerners regard Tiandihui members as the patriots, or regard it a predatory thieves. We can say it is the situation of “Different People, Different Views.”

동시대인들의 역사적 경험들― ‘咸豊 4年 天地會 叛亂’의 사례 ―

이평수 수선사학회 2013 史林 Vol.0 No.46

This paper is based on the 1854 Tiandihui Revolt as example, through this case, we can see the historical experiences of the various contemporaries. Through this work, I finally analysis how can the contemporaries understood and evaluated this revolt. In order to successfully analyze, we should divide the various contemporaries into four groups. First is Tiandihui’ member. They based on Hong Bing identity, it’s political goal “Opposing the Qing and Restoring the Ming” also originated it, and then they carried out large-scale revolt. It is a typical of “To rebel is Justified” idiom. Second is local officials and gentleman. They thoght the emperor had not lost his morality, and all the people got the emperor’s kindness, so Tiandihui have no any right of revolt. Therefore local officials and gentlemen’s repression also have their reasons. Third is the clan. It is such as “Misery and Happiness have no door” an idiom, the clan edit genealogy, and warn future generations do not confuse or participate in large-scale revolt later in order to preserve and develop their clan. Finally is westerner. Their understanding and evaluation are very various interestingly. Some westerners regard Tiandihui members as the patriots, or regard it a predatory thieves. We can say it is the situation of “Different People, Different Views.”