유교 조상의례의 미래

강돈구(Donku Kang) 한국종교학회 2012 宗敎硏究 Vol.69 No.-

The purpose of the article is to investigate the problems of confucian ancestral rites by focusing on Gije, Charyema and Sije. Unlike China and Japan, Korean Confucian ancestral rites are divided into 6 categories: Gije and Charue are performed by household; Sije by clan; Jongmyo Jerye by royal family; Moonmyo by Sunkyunkwan; Sukjon by Hyanggyo. As Chu Hsi’s Family Rituals had been introduced, Korean ancestral rites started to adapt to Confucian perspectives that were rooted in Korean culture around the middle period of joseon Dynasty. Confucian ancestral rites were closely connected with patriarchial clan rules(PCRs) that were invented to maintain the family system in ancient feudal societies. PCRs emphasized the rights of the eldest son who played a key role in the ancestral rites. However, PCRs do not function properly in modern societies. Confucian shrines are the most essential places to keep the ancestral rites because the ancestral tablets are preserved in the shrines. Unfortunately, the number of confucian shrines has sharply decreased. How can Confucian ancestral rites be sustained if Confucian shrines continually disappear? According to the amendment to Inheritance Law, all children can equally inherit property from their parents. According to PCRs, however, the first son inherited property more than other children because he was responsible for performing the ancestral rites. If the amendment to Inheritance Law does not give any privileges to the first so, who is going to take the responsibility for the ancestral rites? In contrast to the Confucian ancestral rites in ancient times, they serve as a tool to weaken the relationship between families and relatives in the modern times. The scholars of folklore and home economics, however, insist the Confucian ancestral rites be of considerable significance in our communities. Thus, they propose the proper procedures for ancestral rites. If Confucian ancestral rites are needed in the present circumstances, these questions have to be answered: Who performs the rituals observed? Confucianism is regarded as one of six major religious groups in Korea. If Confucian scholars leave current ancestral rites as they are, they give up their rights and obligations as Confucians.

“移孝作忠”的儒家密码

유청평(刘清平) (사)율곡학회 2016 율곡학연구 Vol.32 No.-

“Transforming filial piety into loyalty to the ruler” is not only the most characteristic idea of Confucianism, but is also the key factor making Confucianism highly valued by the autocrats in Chinese history. This idea has been deeply rooted in the “crony patriarchy” based on the enfeoffment system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, and especially linked with its specific structure of “uniting state with family”. According to the so-called principle of “consanguineous analogy”, Duke Zhou Gong has already demanded that the common people should be sincerely loyal to their ruler and officials precisely as they should be sincerely filial to their own parents. Carrying on his original viewpoints, a lot of Confucian masters, including Kongzi, Youruo, Mengzi, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu, Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming, and other authors, have put forward the definite idea of “transforming filial piety into loyalty to the ruler” repeatedly in their writings, and thereby made it a consistent and distinct idea of Confucianism for more than two thousand years. In fact, no other schools of thought than Confucianism in ancient China have insisted such a strange idea that confuses the consanguineous filial piety to parents and the political loyalty to the ruler and officials by regarding the latter as the parents of the common people in political life. However, this idea has not only distorted the true features and in-depth differences between family and state, filial piety and loyalty, the private and the public in a misleading way, but also resulted in many negative defects in real life, especially, as the Confucian master Xiong Shili points out, prolonging the dictatorship of “crony patriarchy” in the history of China by deceiving the common people into humbly obeying any demand of the ruler and officials even if they are oppressed cruelly by the latter. It is this negative effect of uniting filial piety with loyalty that has made Confucianism eventually become the sole orthodox ideology of autocracy since the Han Dynasty. Therefore, we should reveal and criticize these negative defects of this idea in order to prevent Confucianism from becoming the spiritual support of “crony patriarchy” again.

고전소설 속 가부장적 권위의 추락과 가치관의 변모

이지하 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2014 한국문화 Vol.68 No.-

Confucian patriarchy has an influence on the Joseon society. Many Korean classical novels which were created this period reflected such social standing. Positive image of patriarch in those works represents the support for the Confucian patriarchy and the social system based on it. However there are also some novels emboding patriarchal authority crash. Some patriarchs in Novels of manners, Domestic Novels, Pansori Novels fail to do their job, becaues of some reasons such as moral debauchery, economic incompetence and the lack of responsibility. Those novel types were enjoyed by the people of the lower classes. so reflected the life of them in the late Joseon society. Patriarch's personal wrongdoings are the first responsibility of family problems but national responsibility should not be ignored because the government could not control the collapse of the system and the sense of values following the rapid social change. It is remarkable that wemen take the patriarch's place. They keep the home with the economic power. It means that economic power became the most important factor in the late Joseon society and the family relationships were readjusted depending on it. It shows that Confucian patriarchy could be changeable to a new family system. However those novels do not embody a new family system in spite of posing serious problems of Confucian patriarchy. It is not only the limits of novels but also the limits of the era. The collapse of the Confucian patriarchy and the change of the family system became to appear only in the modern novels after 1920s.

移孝作忠的儒家密碼

유청평 ( Qing Ping Liu ) (사)율곡연구원 2016 율곡학연구 Vol.32 No.-

“Transforming filial piety into loyalty to the ruler” is not only the most characteristic idea of Confucianism, but is also the key factor making Confucianism highly valued by the autocrats in Chinese history. This idea has been deeply rooted in the “crony patriarchy” based on the enfeoffment system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, and especially linked with its specific structure of “uniting state with family”. According to the so-called principle of “consanguineous analogy”, Duke Zhou Gong has already demanded that the common people should be sincerely loyal to their ruler and officials precisely as they should be sincerely filial to their own parents. Carrying on his original viewpoints, a lot of Confucian masters, including Kongzi, Youruo, Mengzi, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu, Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming, and other authors, have put forward the definite idea of “transforming filial piety into loyalty to the ruler” repeatedly in their writings, and thereby made it a consistent and distinct idea of Confucianism for more than two thousand years. In fact, no other schools of thought than Confucianism in ancient China have insisted such a strange idea that confuses the consanguineous filial piety to parents and the political loyalty to the ruler and officials by regarding the latter as the parents of the common people in political life. However, this idea has not only distorted the true features and in-depth differences between family and state, filial piety and loyalty, the private and the public in a misleading way, but also resulted in many negative defects in real life, especially, as the Confucian master Xiong Shili points out, prolonging the dictatorship of “crony patriarchy” in the history of China by deceiving the common people into humbly obeying any demand of the ruler and officials even if they are oppressed cruelly by the latter. It is this negative effect of uniting filial piety with loyalty that has made Confucianism eventually become the sole orthodox ideology of autocracy since the Han Dynasty. Therefore, we should reveal and criticize these negative defects of this idea in order to prevent Confucianism from becoming the spiritual support of “crony patriarchy” again.

18∼19세기의 시조에 나타난 사랑의 태도 유형 분석

이도흠 ( Lee Do-heum ) 한국문학이론과 비평학회 2008 한국문학이론과 비평 Vol.41 No.-

I applied Greimas‘s semiotic square and Gramsci's hegemony to the sijo-text of Choseon dynasty which approached to the stage of germinal capitalist society in the 18∼19th centuries. There are four types of man's attitude for love: medieval and modern loves, repressive sexuality, free sexuality. These four types were represented in Sijo(the Korean traditional poem) as the reality of that times. In the medieval type of love, man and woman loves each other within the limits of confucian morals, feudal status system, and patriarchy. The several sijo-text of this type emphasize that man must devote himself single-mindly for his wife and king. However, in the modern type of love, man and woman loves each other freely beyond confucian morals, feudal status system, and patriarchy. The several sijo-text of that times reflects the reality that man or women loves freely beyond feudal and patriarchic power relation. Man and woman who are in a repressive mentality to confucian morals allows only to sexual intercourse between husband and wife. The several sijo-text of that times assert that man and women have to love only in legally conjugal situation. The man and woman, free from confucian morals, pursues their pleasures of sexual intercourse and ecstasy of erotism beyond confucian morals, feudal status system, and patriarchy. The several sijo-text of that times represents this kind of free sexuality type beyond feudal and patriarchic power relation, and confucian morals. While modern love and free sexuality have won gradually in the hegemonic struggle against the medieval love and repressive sexuality, and the modern times were opened.

유교적 가부장제와 여성호주 가족

조은(Cho Uhn) 한국여성학회 2005 한국여성학 Vol.21 No.2

이 논문은 한말 한성부 호적 자료를 통해 그 사회의 ‘비전형 가족’인 여성호주가족을 조명했다. 한말 호적은 신분제가 철폐된 직후 그리고 일제 식민지 통치가 시작되기 직전에 수집된 자료라는 점에서 조선시대 유교적 가부장제의 기획물로써 가족을 이해하는데 중요한 자료일 뿐만 아니라 한국근대가 시작되는 지점의 가족을 이해하는데도 중요한 자료이다. 이 연구의 결과는 여성호주의 등장 또는 감소가 그 사회의 지배이념과 관련되어 있으며 “여성호주 가족”이라는 비전형적 가족이 그 사회의 이데올로기와 정치적 구성물임을 보여준다. 한말 호적자료를 통해 본 여성호주가족의 특성을 요약해보면 한말 여성호주 가족은 조선시대 어떤 호적 자료에서보다도 양반호가 적으며 가족수, 호주의 연령, 가족원의 범위 등에서 남성 호주 가족과는 뚜렷한 차이를 보인다. 또한 여성호주 가족원이 평균적으로 두 명이 안되며 여성호의 다수가 단독호라는 사실은 여성호주 가족이 곧 사라질 수 있는 ‘일시적 가족’임을 보여주며, ‘여성호주 가족’은 성위계적인 지배이데올로기 속에서 신분의 요소를 내포하고 있음을 보여준다. 한말 여성호주의 신분은 소사가 대부분이며 그 다음으로 상궁의 비율이 높은데 상궁 외에 침공이나 침선, 재봉 등 전통적인 여성 직업과 주막 등의 상인, 그리고 방적, 교사, 학생 등 근대적 직업의 여성호주가 등장하는 것은 여성호주의 사회적 지위에 변화를 가져올 가능성을 시사하는 흥미로운 측면이다. 마지막으로, 가족의 대표권에서 여성호주 배제는 유교적 가부장제의 핵심 기제인 여성을 아들의 어머니로 호명하고 가족에 복속시킨 또 하나의 전략적 장치였다고 해석할 수 있으며 한말 호적에 나타난 여성호주 가족의 실태는 이러한 기획이 거의 완성단계였음을 보여준다. This paper tries to highlight an “anomalous family” in late Chosun, focusing on female-householder family in Hanmal Hojuk. Hanmal Hojuk was collected in 1903-1906, where family composition would reflect the final stage of Chosun Confucian patriarchy. Females were excluded from representing household in Hojuk, government registar since 18th century, as Confucian patriarchal order, chong-bup was strengthened. Accordingly female-householder families have decreased especially in Yangban (Upper class) in later Chosun. However, female-householders still mark about 4.6% in Hanmal Hojuk. This paper starts with a simple question such as who are female householders? The findings show that female-householder families are exceptionally negligible in Yangban class in Hanmal Hojuk. And they are completely different from male householder ones in householder age, family composition, and family size. More than half of female householder families are single-person family, and more than four fifth of female-householders are in their forties and older who might not marry or have no son. Were there any males in the family, they are either son-in-law, matrilineal grandson, or infant son. Female-householder families are “transitional” or “residual” family in the sense that they are anomalous, not to follow Confucian patriarchal order. Though most of female householders are from Sosa, (commoners), Sanggung(royal lady attendant) next to them, make somewhat noticeable proportion about 4.2% female householders. It suggests that female householders are anomalous or “unconventional” categories. Besides Sosa and Sanggung, traditional women's jobs such as sewers, dressmakers, needleworkers, inn keepers and street vendors count for occupations of female householders. And further, a teacher, school girl and cotton-mill woman have recorded as female householders. The findings imply that Hanmal “female-householder family” can be the invention of an ideological construct which has discouraged women from representing household. In sum, decreased and ghettorized female-householder family evidences that making women as ‘mother of son' is the principal mechanism to reproduce Confucian patriarchy, which culminates in Hammal female-householder family.

한국 여성(주의) 지식의 식민성 비판 - 탈서구와 탈유교의 전략 : 한국 여성(주의) 지식의 식민성 비판

이숙인(Lee Sook-in) 한국동양철학회 2007 동양철학 Vol.0 No.28

이 글은 우리가 누구인지 우리의 문제가 무엇인지를 스스로 말하고 찾아내는 자생적 지식 생산에의 욕망을 담고 있다. 이에 한국 여성을 구성하는 지식의 식민지적 성격을 문제 삼고 그 극복을 모색했다. 전통(성)과 현대(성)를 대표하는 유교와 페미니즘을 통해 한국 여성을 타자화하는 지식의 정치ㆍ문화적인 맥락을 먼저 파악할 필요가 있다. 비서구 여성의 식민화는 서구 페미니스트의 담론과 페미니즘 이론을 통해 나타난다. 중요한 것은 우리 여성을 무능함과 나약함으로 이미지화한 본질주의적 전략이나 수동적 존재로 만드는 서구적 기준과 거리를 두어야 한다는 사실이다. 한편 문화제국주의에 대한 저항으로 전통이 부활되면서 그 내부에는 가부장제라는 또 하나의 식민지가 강화되었다. 여기서 여성은 민족과 전통의 ‘어머니’로 이상화되면서도 물질적 역사로부터는 배제된다. 또한 여성의 타자화는 담론적 차원만 아니라 전통의 핵심을 이루는 유교 이론에서도 나타난다. 지식이란 이론의 정합성 보다 우리가 설정한 목표나 실천적 효과에 얼마나 유용한가에 그 의미가 있다. 유교와 페미니즘에 대한 비판적 해체는 전유와 재개념화의 작업으로 연결될 수 있다. 조건과 맥락 속에서 이론적 범주를 만드는, 이것이 곧 자생적 지식 생산의 기본 원칙이다. This paper tried to find a way of de-colonization of Korean women(feministic) knowledge through de-westernization and de-confucianism. I regard the representative knowledge mechanism of signifying Korean women as confucianism and feminism and criticized its colonial elements. Confucianism with Sino-centrism and feminism with cultural imperialism have been the most influential knowledge systems to women"s life in the pre-modern and modern period. The former is the knowledge which places women as a subsidiary existence for keeping the patriarchy, the latter is the one which makes women a subject for deconstructing the patriarchy. This paper illustrated the procedure of introducing the new knowledges under the international order those days and argued about the concept, theory, and cases of the colonization of women in each knowledge.

한국 영화 속 괴물 서사의 변모 양상 − 전통적 귀신관과의 영향 관계 및 변화를 중심으로 −

오현화 동방문화대학원대학교 동양학연구소 2019 동방문화와 사상 Vol.7 No.-

This paper examined the foundations of the formation of the Korean monster narrative through the connection between traditional ghosts and novels in the late Chosun Dynasty. At that time, Confucian scholars did not see ghosts as transcendent and divine beings. They tried to strengthen virtue, such as rituals of ancestors through ghosts, The ghosts of the Confucian scholars who emphasized moral ethics in the real world have a profound effect on ghost tales and ghost stories. The major ghost novels of the late Joseon Dynasty <Story of Janghwa and Hongnyeon> and ‘Arang Style Legends’ are based on 'Revenge and Hewon(解寃)' of female ghosts. They were ghosted by the excessive oppression of patriarchy. But in Hewon(解寃)'s course, they maintain the temporal Confucian order of feudalism. The horror narrative of horror movies, which began to be produced in earnest since the 1960s, is in line with the traditions of original tales, such as <Story of Janghwa and Hongnyeon>, and ‘Arang Style Legends’. However, the characteristics of the Korean monster narrative based on 'Revenge and Hewon (解寃)', started changing rapidly after the IMF. After the IMF, monster narratives are rather shaped as being violent, disturbing, or disrupting patriarchal order. This change in monster narrative since 2000 shows the collapse of a long-standing patriarchal order. 이 글은 조선 후기 성리학적 유교 전통의 귀신관과 괴기담 소설과의 연관성을 통해, 한국 괴물 서사의 형성 기반에 대해 알아보았다. 이를 바탕으로 한국 영화 속 괴물 서사와 전통적 귀신관과의 영향 관계 분석을 통해, 2000년 이후 괴물 서사의 변모 양상을 살펴 보고 있다. 조선 후기 성리학자들의 귀신관은 귀신을 ‘초월적이고 신이한 존재’로 파악하기보다는, 조상신에 대한 제사의례의 하나로 ‘귀’와의 교감 행위를 통해 현실에서의 도덕의식을 강화하려 했다. 현실에서의 도덕 윤리를 강조했던 성리학적 귀신관은 이후 귀신 설화나 괴기담 소설에 지대한 영향을 끼친다. 조선 후기 대표적 괴기담 소설이라 할 수 있는 <장화홍련전>과 아랑형 전설은 ‘여귀의 복수담과 해원’을 주된 서사 구조로 한다. 그들은 가부장제의 과잉 억압에 의해 원귀가 되었지만, 해원 과정에서 현세의 유교적인 봉건 질서를 추수하는 특징을 보인다. 이는 당시 귀신관에 내재 된 성리학적 유교 윤리가 적용된 결과다. 1960년대 이후 본격적으로 제작되기 시작한 한국 공포영화 속 괴물 서사는 조선 후기 <장화홍련전>이나 아랑형 전설과 같은 원귀 설화의 전통과 그 맥락을 같이한다. 그러나 유교적 가부장제에 기반한 여귀의 복수담과 해원이라는 한국 괴물 서사 구조는 사회가 급변함에 따라 변화하기 시작한다. 과거 영화 속 괴물이 가부장제의 억압에 의해 귀환한 타자였다면, IMF 이후 괴물 서사는 오히려 가부장제의 질서를 위반하거나, 교란 혹은 와해시키는 존재로 출몰한다. 2000년 이후 괴물 서사의 이러한 변화는 오랜 기간 전통적 가치관으로 자리 잡아 온 가부장제의 질서가 흔들리고 있음을 보여주는 것이며, 영화 속 괴물 서사가 당대의 사회문화적 맥락과 함께 변화하고 있음을 반증하는 것이다.

조선시대 부녀의 노출과 외출: 규제와 틈새

정지영 ( Jung Jiyoung ) 한국여성사학회 2005 여성과 역사 Vol.- No.2

Confucianism was the ruling ideology of the Choson Dynasty. Through introducing Confucian rituals into Choson society yangban elites attempted to realize Confucian principles in everyday life. Indeed, the Choson male ruling elite attempted through numerous policies to force the lives of the yangban women into Confucian rituals, as well as to cause them to internalize Confucian ideology. The male ruling elite passed laws forbidding their primary wives, legitimate daughters and mothers from engaging in numerous practices. Especially, yangban women were prevented from revealing themselves, their face or their bodies, in public, and were confined, where possible, to the inner rooms of their homes. They were also prevented from participating in public entertainment. In this essay I will examine the court discussions concerning these various laws. By doing so I hope to suggest ways in which the creation of these laws might be seen from the point of view of Choson dynasty women. Choson dynasty women did not simply obey the laws that were imposed on them, but transformed these laws to their own purposes. Moreover, I will reveal that it was not an easy matter to adapt these laws to reality. Indeed, numerous examples show that, far from staying obediently in the inner rooms, yangban women would often leave their homes and participate in public entertainments. These violations of the law did not amount to open opposition to the Confucian state. Instead, we can see in these cases examples of how yangban women would deal with the Confucian state by resisting and opposing it, ignoring it, or dodging it. `Through this, I will attempt to investigate the traces of women who lived separated from the main focus of history. Especially, I hope to suggest ways of imagining Confucian culture as it would have existed outside of the narrow perspectives of the men who wrote most of the sources we now use.

FROM JEALOUSY TO VIOLENCE : MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND CONFUCIAN PATRIARCHY IN FIFTEENTH-CENTURY KOREA

KIM JISOO M. 계명대학교 한국학연구원 2017 Acta Koreana Vol.20 No.1

During the Koryŏ (918–1392) to Chosŏn (1392–1910) transition, constructing a patrilineal society was one of the state’s primary goals. From the early Chosŏn, the state implemented the Confucian style of marriage and allowed men to have one legitimate wife from the same social status and take lower status women as concubines. As women of different status came to live in the same household, the new marriage practice generated tensions between wives and concubines. The concubinage system was already an intrinsic part of the social fabric in Korean history, but the meaning of conjugal relations shifted during the Chosŏn period and the tension between women of different status became more visible. By using marriage as a site, the aim of this article is to examine how the state intervened in intimate domains such as emotions, sexuality, and familial virtue and how the state emphasized and regulated gendered emotions such as jealousy to embrace Confucian patriarchal values in the domestic space. By examining wives’ jealousy that often led to brutal violence against concubines, this article unveils the cultural meaning of jealousy between partners in the context of Confucian patriarchal and hierarchical society. Furthermore, it demonstrates the power dynamics in conjugal relations and the vulnerability of concubines and how the Confucian style of marriage manifested tensions among Confucian ideals, the law, and social practice.