불탑 숭배와 법화경 신앙

이태영(덕해) 한국불교미술사학회 2020 강좌미술사 Vol.55 No.-

『법화경(the Lotus Sūtra)』은 성립 이후에 여러 지역으로 유포되어 현재도 가장 많이 읽고, 쓰고, 기도하는 경전이다. 법화경은 경전 자체가 지극히 신앙적 경전이라고 할 수 있다. 불상을 조성하고 탑을 세우는 흔히 ‘조불조탑(造佛造塔)’의 핵심적인 경전이기 때문이다. 법화경을 불탑 공양 불교에 있어 신앙의 중요한 점을 부정할 수는 없다. 하지만 부파 교단에서 있었던 불탑(stupa) 공양도 있기에 보다 면밀한 검토가 필요해 보인다. 본 논문에서는 법화경의 내용에 나타난 불탑신앙의 형태 및 전파 과정에서 나타난 법화경 상의불탑신앙을 서적과 자료를 통해 살펴보자 한다. 인도에서 시작된 법화경이 어떠한 신앙 형태를 지니게 되었는지, 실크로드와 중국을 거치면서 어떠한 변용이 되었는지도 중요하게 살펴보아야 할 문제점이다. 실크로드 지역은 한지연, 「서북인도-서역 신앙형성에 나타난 법화 신앙적 요소」 『동아시아 법화경 세계의 구축』 및 『서역불교교류사』를 주로 참고했으며, 중국 초기 법화신앙 부분은 최은영, 「초기 중국불교사에서 법화경 연구와 신앙형태」와 문무왕, 「중국 초기 석굴에 나타난 법화신앙의 특징」을 참고하였다. 법화 신앙의 뿌리는 깊다. 논문 한 편으로 정리한다는 것은 거의 불가능한 일이다. 『법화경」은 그 뿌리에 기본적으로 신앙심은 내포하고 있다고 보아야 할 것이다. 위의 논문의 내용을 몇 가지로 정리할 수 있다. 첫째, 『법화경』의 시작을 추정하기는 어렵지만 결집(Saṅgīti)되고 첨가되면서 강력한 신앙 불교의 형태를 지닌 경전이 탄생하였다. 둘째, 『법화경』의 전파 과정상에서 구자국(Kucha)의 역할이 중요한 비중을 차지하고 있으며, 미륵(Maitreya)신앙이 그 형태를 지닌다고 할 수 있다. 셋째, 중국에 수용된 『법화경』은 신앙 불교의 핵심을 이루게 되었다. 넷째, 중국 초기불교 시기의 석굴 조성과정에서 『법화경』은 중요한 역할을 하였으며, 아미타(Amita) 신앙이 유행하기 전까지는 중심적인 역할을 수행했었다고 볼 수 있다. 『법화경』을 중심으로 한 신앙은 인도에서 시작되어 실크로드를 거쳐 중국에 까지 전해졌다. 이러한 신앙은 불탑(stūpa)과 불상(Buddha’s image) 조성을 위한 중요한 기초가 되었으며, 이러한 흐름은 불교 신앙을 연구하는데 중요한 단서가 될 것이다. 쿠차의 키질(Kizil) 석굴(Buddhist Cave), 운강(Yungang)석굴, 용문(Longmen)석굴 등에 이러한 법화신앙의 요소가 남아있다. “The Lotus Sūtra” has been distributed to many different regions since its creation. Even today, it is one of the scriptures that are most read, written, and prayed by. The scripture itself is very devotional as it is the essential scripture in “making Buddha statues and stupas.” There is no denying that “The Lotus Sūtra” is one of the important elements in the faith of Buddhism based on stupas and offerings. There is, however, a need to review it more closely since some sects have the practice of stupa offering. This study set out to investigate stupa faith in “The Lotus Sūtra” based on its forms and spreading processes described in the scripture by looking into concerned books and materials. The focus should be on what kind of faith form “The Lotus Sūtra” got to develop after its origin in India and what transformation it underwent via the Silk Road and China. The areas of Silk Road were examined in Han Ji-yeon’s “Elements of Lotus Sūtra Faith in the Formation of Faith in Northwestern India - Countries Bordering on Western China,” “Establishment of The Lotus Sūtra World in East Asia” and “History of Exchanges in Buddhism in Countries Bordering on Western China.” The study consulted Choi Eun-yeong’s “Research and Faith Forms of The Lotus Sūtra in Early History of Buddhism in China” and Mun Mu-wang’s “Characteristics of Lotus Sūtra Faith in Early Buddhist Caves of China” to examine the early Lotus Sūtra faith of China. The Lotus Sūtra Faith has deep roots. It is almost impossible to sort out its history in a single paper. There is basic devotion connoted in the roots of “The Lotus Sūtra.” The papers examined above can be arranged in several points: First, although it is difficult to estimate the beginning of “The Lotus Sūtra,” the process of Saṅgīti and addition gave birth to a scripture in a form of strong religious Buddhism. Second, Kucha played important roles in the spreading process of “The Lotus Sūtra,” and Maitreya faith is in its form. Third, “The Lotus Sūtra” accepted in China made the core of religious Buddhism. And fourth, “The Lotus Sūtra” played critical roles in the formation process of Buddhist caves in the early days of Buddhism in China and carried out central roles until the vogue of Amita faith.

『묘법연화경』 「제바달다품」 후대 삽입설 재고

최기표 韓國佛敎硏究院 2014 불교연구 Vol.40 No.-

The current edition of the Lotus Sūtra translated by Kumārajīva, the Miaofa lianhua jing, consists of 28 chapters. However, according to Zhisheng's Kaiyuan shijiao lu, the Lotus Sūtra originally consisted of 27 chapters to which the Devadatta chapter was added on later, resulting thus in the 28 chapters of the current edition. The preface to the Tianpin miaofa lianhua jing, the "appended chapter" version of the Lotus Sūtra, provides a similar explanation. Early commentaries on the Lotus Sūtra likewise do not mention a Devadatta chapter. Therefore, most modern scholars have reached the consensus that the Devadatta chapter did not belong to the Lotus Sūtra at the time of Kumārajīva's translation and that it was inserted in the sūtra later on. Zhiyi, the most authoritative commentator on the Lotus Sūtra, explains that the Lotus Sūtra did originally consist of 28 chapters : it did however circulate for a while without the Devadatta chapter on the specific request by a palace servant. Indeed, the Devadatta chapter is included in the Zhengfahua jing, another translation of the Lotus Sūtra preceding that of Kumārajīva. This paper examines Zhiyi's explanations and concludes that Zhiyi's explanation is sufficiently convincing and compelling. Kumārajīva's translation of the Lotus Sūtra was completed in 406 C.E., prior to the translation of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra which explains that all sentient beings possess buddha-nature. At that time, it was yet difficult for Chinese Buddhists to accept and understand the contents of the Devadatta chapter ; namely, that an evil person such as Devadatta could receive the prediction of future Buddhahood or that the dragon king's daughter could all of a sudden become a buddha. Therefore, the Lotus Sūtra was brought into circulation without the Devadatta chapter until a monk from the Jiangdong Region travelled to Central Asia to obtain it. The Devadatta chapter was then circulated independently without being added to the Lotus Sūtra. It was only upon the unification of the Southern and Northern Dynasties by the Sui empire that Kumārajīva's translation in 28 chapters, containing the Devadatta chapter, replaced prior versions. However, as early catalogues merely specified that the Devadatta chapter had been obtained from the western regions, this was subsequently and gradually misinterpreted in later catalogues, including the Kaiyuan shijiao lu. 구마라집이 번역한 『묘법연화경』의 현행본은 28품으로 이루어져 있다. 그런데 지승은 『개원석교록』에서 이 경은 본래 27품이었는데 후대 사람이 「제바달다품」을 편입시켜 28품이 된 것이라고 기록하고 있다. 또한 『첨품묘법연화경』의 서문에도 이러한 내용이 있고 『묘법연화경』에 대한 초기 주석서에 「제바달다품」 이 없다. 이러한 사실 등을 근거로 「제바달다품」은 구마라집이 번역할 때 없던 것을 후대에 삽입하였다는 것이 현대 학자들 사이에서는 기정사실화 되었다. 그러나 『법화경』에 대한 주석에 가장 큰 권위를 갖고 있는 지의는 『묘법연화경』이 본래 28품이었지만 宮人의 요청으로 이 품을 뺀 채 한동안 유통시켰다고 설명하고 있다. 또한 『묘법연화경』보다 먼저 번역된 『정법화경』에는 「제바달다품」이 모두 담겨 있다. 이에 따라 본 연구에서는 지의의 설명을 고찰한 결과 충분히 타당성이 있다고 결론지었다. 『묘법연화경』이 번역된 서기 406년은 "모든 중생에게 불성이 있다"는 내용을 담은 『열반경』이 번역되기 이전이다. 제바달다와 같은 악인이 수기를 받고 용왕의 딸이 순식간에 성불하는 내용을 담은 「제바달다품」은 중국의 불교계로서는 아직 이해하기 힘든 내용이었다. 이에 따라 이 품을 뺀 채 한동안 유통시켰는데 이것이 江東으로 전해졌고 이 지방의 사문이 서역에 가서 「제바달다품」을 구해왔다. 그러나 이 품은 『묘법연화경』과 합쳐지지 않고 별도로 두었고 隋가 남북조를 통일하면서 구마라집이 번역한 본래의 28품본이 유통됨에 따라 없어졌다. 초기 목록집은 서역에서 「제바달다품」을 구해온 기사만 기록하였는데 시대가 흐름에 따라 점차 조금씩 와전되어 『개원석교록』과 같은 잘못된 기사가 나오게 된 것이다.

법화경 상불경보살의 예배행의 사상적 연원에 대한 소고

하영수 금강대학교 불교문화연구소 2022 불교학 리뷰 Vol.32 No.-

The Sadāparibhūta (Never Disparaging) Bodhisattva, famous for his worship practices and prophecy on the Buddhahood for everyone, is widely known as a figure who symbolizes the practice of the idea of the One Vehicle of the Lotus Sūtra. However, some recent studies have argued that this Bodhisattva’s worship practices and prophecy have nothing to do with the Lotus Sūtra, based on the fact that there is no textual support that the Buddha, who reigned during his time, preached the Lotus Sūtra. Therefore, I reviewed this issue in this paper. My points are as follows: First, in the Lotus Sūtra, the typicality of Buddha’s edification is repeatedly stated. Its typicality can be summarized as the appearance of Buddha → edification by means of the expedient → preaching of the One Vehicle → entering final nirvāna. It is reasonable to view this typicality as consistent throughout the Lotus Sūtra. Second, the similarity between the narrative method and the sermons of the two past Buddhas in chapter 1 and chapter 19 shows that the Lotus Sūtra has a consistent structure. Third, the behavioral patterns of this Bodhisattva are very similar to that of a person who joyfully accepted this Sūtra, and his prophecy, in which he preached that all sentient beings can attain the Buddhahood (even in the period when the Buddha did not exist), coincides in content with the phrase in chapter.10 “The Preacher”. Based on the above points, I revealed that the story of the Sadāparibhūta is not one of a person unrelated to the Lotus Sūtra, but rather shows the process of a practitioner, who accepts the Lotus Sūtra with a joyful mind, and grows into a great preacher through the merits of his practices. This understanding is consistent with the composition of the Lotus Sūtra reflected in chapter.17 “The Merits of Joyful Acceptance”, chapter.18 “The Advantages of a Religious Preacher”, and chapter.19 “The Sadāparibhūta.” 예배행과 성불 수기로 유명한 상불경보살(常不輕菩薩)은 법화 일승 사상의 실천을 상징하는 인물로 널리 알려져 있다. 그런데 최근의 몇몇 연구에서는 경전에 상불경의 예배행과 법화경의 관계가 명료하게 제시되어 있지 않다는 것을 근거로, 이 보살의 실천이 법화경과 무관하다는 주장이 제기되었다. 따라서 본고에서는 이 문제를 검토하였다. 필자의 논점은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 법화경 에서는 붓다 교화의 전형성이 반복적으로 설해진다. 그 전형성은 ‘여래의 출현 → 방편 교화 → 법화 일승의 설법 → 열반’으로 요약된다. 이러한 붓다 교화의 전형성은 경전 전체에 일관되는 것으로 보는 것이 타당하다. 둘째, 「제1서품」과 「제19상불경보살품」의 두 과거불에 대한 서술 방식과 설법 경문의 유사성은 법화경이 일종의 수미쌍관(首尾雙關)식 구성을 채용하고 있음을 보여주는 것이라 할 수 있다. 셋째, 상불경보살의 행동 양식은 이 경전에서 설하는 수희자의 행동 양식과 매우 유사하며, 무불(無佛) 시대에도 모든 중생이 성불할 수 있다고 전파한 그의 수기는 「법사품」의 구절과 내용적으로 상통한다. 이상의 논점에 의거하여 필자는 상불경보살의 예화가 법화경과 무관한 인물의 이야기가 아니라, 법화의 수희자가 그 실천의 공덕을 통해 대법사로 성장하는 과정을 보여주고 있음을 밝혔다. 이러한 이해는 「제17수희공덕품」에서 「제18법사공덕품」, 그리고 「제19상불경보살품」으로 이어지는 경전의 구성에도 부합한다.

「화엄경 약찬게」와 『신중경』의 성립과 전개

문상련 한국불교학회 2023 韓國佛敎學 Vol.105 No.-

This study aims to provide detailed explanations about the establishment and developmental process of the Briefly Edited Verses of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra by presenting newly discovered historical materials based on prior research on the subject. It is revealed that the Section of the Wonderful Adornments of the Leaders of the World of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra published around 1250 was called the Avataṃsaka Guardian Deities (Sūtra), and this sutra in 1939 was shortened into the Briefly Edited Guardian Deities of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra which publication brought the establishment of today’s Briefly Edited Verses of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra. The (Avataṃsaka) Guardian Deities Sūtra then formed an important axis in the Buddhist rituals during the early period of Joseon. According to the Song Nyum Ye Cham Won Seng Deung Bu published at Ansimsa Temple in 1753, the Sūtra was comprised of the Praise of Diamond Sūtra, the Lotus Guardian Deities, and the Avataṃsaka Guardian Deities. Since the 17th century, however, the object of worship in the Avataṃsaka Guardian Deities Sūtra has shifted into Ucchusma Bright King (穢跡明王) and Brahma King (梵王), and the preexisting guardian deities were excluded from being observed. Even in this situation, the Nagarjuna Bodhisattva‘s Briefly Edited Verses of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra in the Ye Nyum Wang Seng Mun edited and compiled around 1715 gave birth to newly formatted the Extensively Edited Verses (廣略纂偈). This work was included in the Avataṃsaka and Lotus Briefly Edited Dharani published in 1885 in order to “compile the essence to enter the Buddha karma“. The Briefly Edited Verses of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra found here was finally included as part of the end of the Guardian Deities Prayers under the section of everyday liturgy in the Tong Il Beop Yo Jip published in 1998. 본 논문은 기존 「화엄경 약찬게」에 대한 연구를 바탕으로, 새롭게 발견된사료를 제시하는 가운데 ‘약찬게’의 성립과 전개 과정을 상술한 것이다. 이를통해 필자는 1250년경에 간행된 『대방광불화엄경 세주묘엄품』이 『화엄신중(경)』이라 불렸음과 함께, 1349년에는 이 『화엄신중(경)』을 간략한 『대방광불화엄경 약신중』(略神衆)의 간행을 통해 현재의 「화엄경 약찬게」가 성립되었음을 말하였다. 또한 이때의 『(화엄)신중경』은 조선 초에 불교 의식의 중요 축을 형성했으며, 1573년 안심사 간행의 『송념예참원생등부』를 통해 볼 때 당시 『(화엄)신중경』은 「금강반야바라밀경찬」과 「법화신중」, 「화엄신중」이 포함된 형태로구성되었음을 말하였다. 이후 17세기 중반 이래 기존 ‘화엄신중’의 예경 대상이 예적명왕(穢跡明王)과 범왕(梵王) 등으로 변한 채 기존 ‘화엄신중’은 예경 대상에서 제외된다. 이런 상황에서도 1715년경에 찬집된 『예념왕생문』 「대방광불화엄경 용수보살약찬게」에서는 기존 「화엄경 약찬게」에 대한 교학적 연구를 통해 이를 수정하여 「광약찬게」(廣略纂偈)라는 새로운 형식의 약찬게를 탄생시키기도 하였다. 이 내용은 “불업(佛業)에 드는 요체를 취합하고자” 하는 목적으로 1885년 간행된 『화엄법화약찬총지』에 수록되었고, 여기수록된 ‘화엄경 약찬게’는 1998년 『통일법요집』 ‘상용의식’ 항목 중 「신중청」 말미에 의식문의 한 부분으로 수록되어 한국불교 의식문 중 일부로 남을수 있었음을 말하였다.

감성사전 정보가 결합된 특징통합벡터를 활용한 감성분석

김호승(Ho-Seung Kim),이지형(Jee-Hyong Lee) 한국지능시스템학회 2020 한국지능시스템학회논문지 Vol.30 No.6

기존의 감성분석은 사전 학습된 정보를 이용하는 것보다 단어, 문장 또는 문맥을 인공신경망 모델에서 학습하고 이를 이용하여 감성분석을 시도하고 있다. 본 논문에서는 사전 학습된 정보와 인공신경망을 같이 사용하기 위한 방법으로 감성사전을 선택하였다. 먼저 사전 구축되어 있는 감성사전이 갖고 있는 단어들의 기본 감성극성과 감성사전으로 학습된 모델을 통한 문장의 일반적인 감성극성, 인공신경망을 통한 문맥의 감성극성을 추출한다. 이렇게 얻어진 단어, 문장 감성극성과 문맥 감성극성을 결합하여 특징통합벡터를 만드는 것을 제안한다. 그리고 이를 감성분석 모델에 적용하여 문장이 가지고 있는 감성극성을 분류하는 실험을 하였고 우수한 성능을 나타내는 것을 확인하였다. Previous sentiment analysis attempts to analyze sentiment by learning words, sentences or contexts from models using artificial neural networks rather than using pre-trained information. In this paper, sentiment dictionary is selected as a method to use pre-trained information and neural networks together. It extracts both the word, sentence sentiment polarity based on the sentiment dictionary and context sentiment polarity through the neural networks. We suggest to create a mixed feature vector by combining word, sentence and context sentiment polarity information. In addition, it is confirmed that it shows excellent performance through an experiment to classify the sentiment polarity of sentences by using it in the sentiment analysis model.

고려 후기 『法華經』 靈驗譚 유포와 그 의의: 『海東法華傳弘錄』을 중심으로

김영미 이화여자대학교 이화사학연구소 2012 梨花史學硏究 Vol.0 No.45

Cheonchaek(天頙) edited the Haedong Beophwa-jeonhongnok(The Eastern Sea’s Record of the Stories Inspired from the Lotus Sūtra) and recorded the miracle stories related to the Lotus Sūtra at the time when the war with Mongolia was near the end. This is compared with the fact that the Hongzan fahua zhuan(弘贊法華傳), which was edited in China, was distributed in the early Goryeo Dynasty. The main characters of Goryeo miracle stories are wholly the then officials or ex­officials, monks, local officials, wealthy landowners, and the most powerful man's wife, and ordinary people are not included. This is relevant to the fact that Cheonchaek handed the Haedong-jeonhongnok out to the officials like Jang-yong Lee(李藏用). That is to say, the major class of readers was the officials and monks. Accordingly, in the activities for faith, there are no practices chanting the names of Avalokitêśvara-bodhisattva or Amitâbha Buddha. Those are the miracle stories resulted mainly from the copying, recitation and explanation of the Lotus Sūtra. And those who participated in the White Lotus Society were given a great deal of weight among the readers. It is because Cheonchaek pushfully urged the officials to be engaged in the Society. And he may have anticipated the wide distribution of the miracle stories through them. It was because of the then urgent social necessity that Cheonchaek edited the miracle stories inspiring the faith based on Lotus Sutra. It was intended to give consolation to and instill religious passion into the people who were suffering from the three calamities (三災) of war, famine and infectious diseases through telling them the miracle stories which their neighbors experienced. We can recognize this from the fact that Cheonchaek thought that the war was due to their karma and said that the Buddha and bodhisattvas would surely help them if they performed some activities for faith seeking for piety and miracles.

『법화경』에 나타난 空思想

김선근 한국불교학회 2009 韓國佛敎學 Vol.54 No.-

The two key words which occur on almost each page of the Mahāyāna writings are Bodhisttva and emptiness. What then means first of all Bodhisattva? Buddha is the one who is enlightened. Bodhisattva means literally an Enlightenment-Being. He is a Buddha-to-be, one who wishes to become a Buddha. The Bodhisattva in this sense strives for reaching the perfect Enlightenment not only for himself, but also for other sentient beings with the skill in means, through which the latent seeds of enlightenment in others can be brought out and mature. The following ist the famous passage from the Diamond Sūtra illustrating this point: Here, O Subhuti, a Bodhisattva should think thus: “As many beings as there are in the universe of beings - be they egg - born, as born from a womb, or moisture-born, or miraculously born ; be they with born, or without ; be they with perception, without perception, or with neither perception nor no-perception - as far as any conceivable universe of beings is conceived; all these should be led by me intoNirvāṇa, into that realm of Nirvāṇa which leaves nothing behind. And yet, although innumerable beings have thus been led to Nirvāṇa, no being at all has born led to Nirvāṇa. And why? If in a Bodhisattva the perception of a ‘being’ should take place, he would not be called an ‘enlightenment-bing’.” Bodhisattva is a being having the two contradictory forces of wisdom and compassion. In wisdom, he sees no sentient beings at all; in compassion, he is full of firm resolve to save them. The ability to combine these contradictory forces makes him to stay in this world and to practice Bodhisattva-Path, thereby saving himself and others. Bodhisattva, the Sūtra tells us, should cultivate these two things, with the thought: “I will never abandon all sentient beings notwithstanding the fact that all things are empty.” We must now make an effort to understand this important idea of Emptiness. Here the meaning of the sanskrit word śūnyatā deserves to be interpreted as a synonym of Non-Self. For Buddhists, emptiness is a term for the absence of self, or for self-effacement. Emptiness is that which stands right in the middle between two extremes: affirmation and negation, existence and non-existence, eternity and annihilation. Tathāgatas teach the Dharma of the middle to be free from both extremes. This Dharma is now called emptiness. The following famous passage from the Diamond Sūtra illustrates this point well: The lord said: “Wherever there is possession of marks, there is fraud,there is fraud, wherever there is no-possession of no-marks there is no fraud. Hence the Tathāgata is to be seen from no-marks as marks.” From the other point of view, the emptiness is called Suchness (tathatā), because the emptiness is realized, when the real nature of the thing is seen, without superimposing any ideas upon it. At the level of the world of conventional Truth, the Lotus Sūtra appears to accept the Madhyamaka doctrine of emptiness. A world where spiritual progress is paramount, truth very often depends upon context. Here is a very famous passage from the XIV chapter (安樂行品) of the Lotus Sūtra to illustrate this point : Further, a Bodhisattva Mahāsattva looks upon all phenomena as emptiness. He sees them duly established, remaining unaltered, as they are in reality, not liable to be disturbed, not to be moved backward, unchangeable. It is existing in the highest sense of the word, having the nature of space, escaping explanation and expression by means of common speech, not born, composed and simple, aggregated and isolated, not expressible in words, formless, really without existence, innumerable infinite, independently established, unrestrained, only existing by causes, and manifesting themselves owing to a perversion of perception. The IV chapter(adhimukti-parivarta, 信解品) of the Sūtra reads: “All is emptiness, non-form, and non-action.” The V chapter(Oṣadhī-pariva... 공의 사상은 원시불교의 ‘제행무상’이나 ‘제법무아’라는 관념을 받아들인 사상이다. 空思想은 『아함경』이나 아비다르마 불교에도 있지만 이 空思想을 더욱 심화시켜 존재하는 모든 것의 본성은 空이라 하고, 법이 空함과 법에 자성이 없음을 분명히 했던 것은 『금강경』이다. 『법화경』에 나타난 空사상은 『반야경』의 空사상을 기반으로 하여 제 14 「안락행품」, 제 16 「여래수량품」, 제 4 「신해품」, 제 5 「약초유품」 그리고 제 10 「법사품」에 나타나 있다. 제 10 「법사품」을 제외한 모든 品들은 『반 야경』의 空사상을 계승한 것으로 이해 할 수 있다. 「법사품」에서는 법사 (dharma-bhaṇaka)를 ‘如來使, Tathāgata-dūta’로 부르고 보살을 가리키는 것으로, 보살이 호지할 ‘홍경삼궤(弘經三軌)’를 제시하고 있다. ‘홍경삼궤’란 법사가 여래의 방(室)에 들어가 여래의 옷(衣)을 입고, 여래 의 자리(座)에 앉아 두려워 말고 법을 설하는 것을 말한다. 여기에서 말하 는 방(室)ㆍ옷(衣)ㆍ자리(座) 등은 자비(慈悲)ㆍ인욕(忍辱)ㆍ공성(空性) 등을 가리킨다. 『법화경』에 나타난 空思想의 극치는 ‘홍경삼궤(弘經三軌)’를 존중 하여 신앙의 중요한 요소로 주창하였다는 점일 것이다. ‘홍경삼궤’의 주장으 로 인해 경전의 受持ㆍ讀ㆍ誦ㆍ解說ㆍ書寫를 권장하는 풍조가 생겼다. 『법화경』의 제 2 「방편품」에서는 空을 우주의 통일적인 진리로서의 ‘일승 묘법’으로 적극적으로 표현했다. 이 사상은 뒤이어 ‘일체중생 실유불성(一切 衆生 悉有佛性)’의 여래장(如來藏) 사상이 생겨나는 단초가 된다.『법화경』에 나타난 空사상을 체계화하여 연기(緣起)나 중도(中道)ㆍ이제 (二諦) 등을 空의 입장에서 조직했던 이가 용수(龍樹, A.D.150-250)이다. 그 리고 이 계통이 중관학파로 발전한 것이다.

東北亞 삼국의 法華三昧 行法體系 硏究

이기운 동양철학연구회 2012 東洋哲學硏究 Vol.70 No.-

The Ṣaddharma-puṇḍarīika-samādhi (hereafter, SPS) 法華三昧 is awakening to the true aspect of the Lotus Sutra. It was created by Huisi 慧思 in China, who passed this practice down to his disciple Tiantai and Hyeon-gwang from Baekje Korea through the 'four means of attaining peace' 四安樂行 at the Samantabhadra practice site 普賢道場. Huisi’s thought of the SPS is recorded in the Doctrine of the means of attaining peace in the Lotus Sutra 『法華經安樂行義』. However, Huisi’s SPS failed to become a complete practice system as it was not established as an independent practice method. Thereafter, Tiantai integrated his own experience and the practice method of the Lotus Sutra into a ritual of practice, the Repentance Ritual of the Ṣaddharma-puṇḍarīika-samādhi 『法華三昧懺儀』. This practice was transmitted to Korea and Japan and thus got to be performed by the three countries of Northeast Asia. As this SPS practice was handed down to China, Japan, and Korea, it was transformed according to their own periods and circumstance and established as their unique practice methods. In Japan, the SPS was re-created as the Ritual of Repentance Based on the Lotus Sūtra 『法華懺法』; in Korea, as the Ritual of Repentance of Based on the Samadhi of the Lotus Sutra 『妙法蓮華經三昧懺法』. Like this, Tiantai’s Repentance Ritual of the Ṣaddharma-puṇḍarīika-samādhi 『法華三昧懺儀』 was accepted by each Tiantai Order of the three countries of Northeast Asia as their common but somewhat transformed practice methods. In Chinese Tiantai, such transformations were made in its practice system, especially in the insight method 觀法 and repentance ritual 懺悔法. In Japanese Tendai, some processes of repentance and various rituals were added while its practice system was simplified so that it could be called a brief version of the SPS. Meanwhile, Korea’s Cheontae practice, according to the recently found Ritual of Repentance of Based on the Samadhi of the Lotus Sutra 『妙法蓮華經三昧懺法』, showed an innovative system that transcends the transformations made by Chinese and Japanese counterparts. After all, as for both the Chinese and Japanese systems, their practice methods were intended for all the chapters of the Lotus Sutra; as for Goryeo’s, however, the practice methods were for each chapter to be performed differently. The reason for Goryeo’s unique method is that, though all the chapters of the Lotus Sutra describe the same stage of the SPS, each chapter, nevertheless, differs in their insight method and practice system for attaining the samadhi. This being so, it is necessary to present different samadhis appropriate for each chapter. In this manner, the practice systems of the SPS in the three countries of Northeast Asia have been performed according to each country’s own insight method and repentance practice, and sutra reciting method. 법화경의 실상의 경지를 깨닫는 법화삼매는 중국에서 慧思에 의해 창안되었다. 혜사는 이 수행법을 그의 제자 천태와 백제 현광에게 보현도량과 사안락행을 통하여 전하였다. 혜사의 법화삼매사상은 『法華經安樂行義』에 들어 있다. 그러나 여기에는 아직 수행법으로 정립되지 않아서 행법화에 이르지 못하였다. 그후 天台는 자신의 수행경험과 법화경의 수행법을 통합하여 『法華三昧懺儀』 라는 수행의례로 만들어 전하였다. 이 수행법은 후대에 한국과 일본에도 전해져서 동북아 삼국에서 신행되었다. 이 법화삼매 수행법은 중국 일본 한국에 전승되면서 그곳의 시대와 상황에 따라 특징있는 수행법으로 정립되었다. 일본에서는 『法華懺法』으로 재창안되어 신행되었고, 우리나라에서도 『妙法蓮華經三昧懺法』으로 재창안되어 수행되었다. 이와 같이 중국의 천태대사 『법화삼매참의』라는 단일의 법화삼매수행법이 삼국의 천태종에서 수용되어 동북아시아 삼국이 공통의 수행법이면서 각국의 실정에 맞는 특징있는 법화삼매수행법으로 전개된 것이다. 중국에서는 『법화삼매참의』 原典으로부터 觀法과 懺悔法을 중심으로 수행체계에 變用이 보이고 있다. 일본에서는 참회법과 여러 作法儀禮가 첨가되고, 수행체계도 간소화하여 축약된 법화삼매가 신행되었다. 한편 근래에 발견된 우리나라의 『묘법연화경삼매참법』은 기존의 중국과 일본에서 신행되는 수행법의 변용을 뛰어 넘는 획기적인 수행체계를 보여주고 있다. 그것은 기존 수행법들, 중국과 일본의 수행법은 모두 법화경 전품을 상대로 한 법화삼매 수행법이었으나, 고려의 것은 법화경 각 품에 하나씩의 법화삼매수행법을 개발하여 수행한 것이다. 이것은 법화경 전품이 같은 법화삼매의 경지라 하다더라도, 각 품마다의 법화삼매의 경지에 들어가는 관법과 수행체계의 차이가 있어서 이를 고려하여 각 품에 맞는 법화삼매 수행법을 제시한 것이다. 이와 같이 동북아시아 삼국의 법화삼매 수행법은 그 나라의 실정에 맞는 觀法과 懺悔行 讀誦法을 구사하고 있다.

니와노 닉쿄(庭野日敬)의 종교협력에 의한 평화의 실천과 일불승의 세계

사나다 요시아키(眞田芳憲) 원광대학교 원불교사상연구원 2011 원불교사상과 종교문화 Vol.50 No.-

잘 알려져 있듯이, 21 세기는 ‘종교간 대화의 시대’ 혹은 ‘종교간 협력의 시대’라 할 수 있다. 최근 몇 년 동안 세계 각국의 종교 대표자들은 한 자리에 모여 상호이해를 촉진하기 위한 다양한 회의를 개최하여, 종교적 다양성의 측면에서 최근 인류가 직면하고 있는 문제들을 논의해 왔다. 그러나, 1970년대에 이러한 모임은 매우 드물어, 종교 지도자가 한 자리에 모여 세계평화와 관련하여 논의하는 일은 ‘인류의 기적’으로 평가된다. Rissho Kosei-Kai의 설립자이자 ‘평화를 위한 종교 세계회의’(WCRP) 설립에 일조한 Nikkyo Niwano는 ‘평화를 위한 종교 세계회의’ 명예회장이다. 그는 일본과 해외에서 종교지도자들에게 종교간 대화와 협력의 신성한 중요성에 대해서 말했다. 인류 역사에서 종교간 협력을 촉진한 그의 노력으로 ‘평화를 위한 종교 세계회의(WCRP)’의 명예직이 부여되었다. 본 논문의 목적은 Nikkyo Niwano의 종파를 초월한 활동과 상호 종교간 협력에 대한 사상을 밝히는 것이다. 1. Niwano 목사의 종교간 협력을 통한 평화로운 실천의 훌륭한 성과 2. ‘모든 종교는 궁극적으로 한 근본이다’라는 믿음에 기초한 그의 종교적 이념과『법화경』 3. 법화경의 ‘열린일체(open oneness)’로서의 보편적 교훈 4. 보편적 진리로서의 ‘열린 일체’와 ‘미래교일(未來敎一)’의 교훈 5. 신앙의 실천으로서의 종교간 협력. 6. 종교의 기능을 강화시키는 종교적 대화와 협력의 유형 As is well known, the 21st century is considered “The Century of Interreligious Dialogue” or “The Century of Interreligious Cooperation.”In recent years, religious representatives from around the world are creating opportunities to meet under one roof and hold various types of conferences to foster mutual understanding, respect for religious diversity, and to discuss current issues that confront humanity. In the 1970s, however, gatherings of such type were so uncommon that if religious leaders met together to discuss issues related to world peace, the meeting was deemed “A Miracle of Humankind.” Nikkyo- Niwano, the late founder of Risshō Kōsei Kai helped to found the World Conference of Religions for Peace (WCRP) and was its honorary president. He spoke to other religious leaders in Japan and abroad about the sacred importance of interreligious dialogue and cooperation. An honorable status was bestowed on the WCRP for its effort to promote interreligious cooperation in the history of humanity. This paper aims to highlight Nikkyō Niwano’s interfaith activities and thoughts about interreligious cooperation. 1. Niwano’s great achievement peaceful practices through interreligious cooperation. 2. His religious ideology based on the belief that “All religions ultimately share the same root,”and the Lotus Sūtra 法華經. 3. Teaching of the Universal Truth as “Open Oneness” in the Lotus Sūtra. 4. Teachings of the Universal Truth as “Open Oneness” and the “Future oneness of teachings.” 5. Religious cooperation as a practice of faith. 6. Types of religious dialogue and cooperation to deepen its function.

中國 法界像에 관한 硏究

河定旼(Ha Jung-min) 한국미술사학회 2003 美術史學硏究 Vol.- No.237·238

In China, there remains a group of Buddha images that have Mount Sumeru Buddhas, bodhisattvas, the six gatis and other small motifs depicted on their bodies or robes. In this article, this type of images is referred to as fajie xiang (法界像, Buddha of Dharmadh?tu). This term indicates the image of Buddha that contains various elements of the world or cosmos in his divine body or robe, and the ‘fajie' in this term indicates the entire world or cosmos. In previous scholarship, the iconography of fajie xiang was regarded to be either Vairocana Buddha as described in the Avatamsaka S?ira, or a cosmic manifestation of S?kyamuni Buddha. This article argues that the iconography of fajie xiang cannot be determined as one of the two interpretations, and that fajie xiang was first made to represent ??kyamuni Buddha and the iconography was later exploited for the images of Vairocana. ??kyamuni was a historic figure who lived and preached dharma as a human being. After his death, the followers of Buddhism wished to have other Buddhas, which resulted in the belief that numerous Buddhas existed in different places. At the same time, Buddhists sought after a universal Buddha who could encompass the numerous Buddhas of distinctive and limited qualities. In an attempt to solve this problem, there appeared a concept of ??kyamuni as a transcendental being. However, as it was difficult to completely discard the human aspect of ??kyamuni, the notion of transcendental Buddha was complemented by that of Lushena Buddha (盧舍那佛, Buddha Vairocana). which was related to the worship of sun and light. The concept of Lushena did not appear suddenly but was a result of gradual systematization of various ideas about ??kyamuni as a cosmic Buddha rose during the development of Mahayana Buddhism. For the notion of transcendental ??kyamuni developed into that of Lushena, it seems reasonable to assume that the iconography of fajie xiang. which was first made for the universal ??kyamuni, also developed into that of Lushena. The notion of a god bearing the entire world in his body originated from the epic poem Mah?bh?rata dated to about the second century B.C. ??kyamuni attained this quality already in the early stage of Buddhism. The image of ??kyamuni as shown in fajie xiang is affirmed by the texts such as Lotus Sutra (法華經). Da fangbian fo baoen jing(大方便佛報恩經), Guan fo sanmei hai jing(觀佛三昧海經), Dasheng ben sheng xindi guan jing(大乘本生心地觀經). On the other hand, the relation between Lushena and fajie xiang is found in Avatamsaka S?tra(華嚴經). There remains no Indian examples of fajie xiang, and it is plausible that the iconography was formulated in Central Asia or China. When considering the extant images, the making of fajie xiang is dated back to the sixth century. Some painted images are found in the murals of the cave shrines of Kizil and Dunhuang. In these sites, the images of fajie xiang appear as part of larger iconographic programs that aimed to glorify ??kyamuni Buddha, and these examples thus can be regarded as ??kyamuni Buddha. Additionally, there is a sculpted image of fajie xiang that represents ??kyamuni, for the life of ??kyamuni and j?taka are illustrated on the surface of the Buddha's robe. It is in China proper that we find the images of fajie xiang as Lushena. The iconography is affirmed by the inscriptions of 'Lushena'. Although the iconography of fajie xiang was established in late sixth century, almost no images remain since then. The notion of Lushena was significant to Chinese Buddhists until the sixth century, but after the eighth century, Lushena Buddha was replaced by Piluzhena Buddha (毘盧遮那佛), who was advocated in Huayen School(華嚴宗). It seems that accordingly the fajie xiang as Lushena lost its place. However, after the tenth century the fajie xiang of Lushena reappeared. Although they do not have any inscription, they have the mudra of two hands bent outward and the lotus throne with small Buddhas images on its pe