조선후기 開城의 도시구조와 상업

高東煥(Ko Dong Hwan) 역사문화학회 2009 지방사와 지방문화 Vol.12 No.1

본 연구는 農本體制하에 상업억제정책을 강하게 유지했던 조선왕조에서 왜 유독 개성지역에서만 末利를 드러내놓고 추구하는 상업을 영위할 수 있었는지를 개성의 도시구조와 개성상인들의 구체적인 상업활동을 통해 살펴본 것이다. 개성에서 상업이 용인된 까닭은 상인 중심으로 구성된 주민구성, 화폐경제를 기반으로 한 재정운영의 특성때문이었다. 토지와 家戶, 人丁에서 수취한 각종 賦稅를 기초로 운영된 대부분의 郡縣과 달리 개성은 상인에게 거둔 세금과 금전대부를 통한 이자수입을 재정의 기초로 삼지 않을 수 없었다. 상업이윤을 재정의 근본으로 삼았기 때문에, 조선사회의 강력한 억말정책하에서도 개성에서는 상업을 용인하고 권장하지 않을 수 없었던 것이다. 개성은 조선후기이후 영역의 확장, 인구의 급격한 증가를 나타내는 도시였다. 1796년(정조 20) 개성부는 금천군(소남면, 대남면)과 장단부(사천이서지역) 일부와 1823년(순조 23)에는 풍덕부 전체를 합병하였다. 개성의 인구추세를 보면, 15세기 중엽 8,372명이었지만, 1756년 34,285명, 1855년경에는 75,482명으로 증가하였다. 私商을 대표하는 개성상인의 상업활동은 매우 다양했다. 개성부내의 상설점포인 시전상업, 전국적 行商과 都賈商業, 중국과 일본을 대상으로 한 무역, 그리고 개성상인들 사이에서 행해진 금융활동과 인삼의 재배와 경작,나아가 홍삼의 제조와 유통에 이르기까지 개성상인들의 활동영역은 상업분야 외에도 농업과 금융, 제조업에까지 미쳤다. 개성상인들은 인삼유통권 장악을 기초로 중개무역에 참여하여 막대한 이익을 얻을 수 있었다. 개성상인들은 국내 상업과 국제무역에서 축적한 자본을 광업이나 삼포업에 투자하였다. 개성상인들의 자본규모는 1874년의 4개월동안 상품구입 총액은 10만 3,469냥에 달할 정도였다. The current study examined the reason why merchants were able to operate commercial activities pursuing profits only in Gaesung area during the Joseon Dynasty that had strong commerce restriction policies based on agriculture-based system through the structure of Gaesung and concrete commercial activities of merchants in Gaesung. The reason why commerce was allowed in Gaesung was because of its own characteristics such as residents who were mainly merchants and financial operation based on monetary economy. Differently from most Guns and Hyeons that were operated on the basis of various taxes collected from land, families and individuals, the bases of finance in Gaesung were mainly taxes collected from merchants and interest profits through loaning. Gaesung could not help allowing and recommending commerce even under strong commerce restriction policies of the Joseon Dynasty because its financial basis wascommercial profits. Gaesung presented the expansion of the territory and a dramatic increase in population after the latter half of the Joseon Dynasty. Gaesung-bu incorporated some of Geumcheon-gun(Sonam-myeon and Daenam-myeon) and Jangdan-bu(Sacheon and Iseo areas) in 1796 (the 20th year of King Jeongjo), and the entire Pungdeok-bu in 1823(the 23rd year of King Sunjo). Its population increased to 75,482 in 1855 from 8,372 in the middle of the 15th century and 34,285 in 1756. Commercial activities of merchants in Gaesung representing private merchants were very various. Their activities ranged from the commercial area to agricultural, financial and manufacturing businesses such as Sijeon trade, permanent stores in the territory of Gaesung-bu, nationwidepeddling and Dogo commerce, trade with China and Japan, financial activities among merchants in Gaesung, cultivation of Ginseng, and production and distribution of red Ginseng. Merchants in Gaesung were able to get enormous profits by participating in intermediary trade on the basis of the right of ginseng distribution. They also invested capital accumulated from domestic trade and overseas trade into the mining industry or the ginseng industry. With regard to their capital size, the total amount used to purchase goods for four months in 1874 was 103,469 copper nyang.

일제초 개성 시가지의 변화와 개성상인의 경제 기반

왕현종 연세대학교 국학연구원 2021 동방학지 Vol.194 No.-

이 연구는 한말에서 일제초기 1900~1920년대 개성 시가지의 변화와 개성상인의 경제기반을 검토하였다. 주된 논점은 첫째, 한말 일제초기 개성의 행정적 사회적 변화를 검토하여 개성시민의 도시 생활 근거지의 변화와 상업 활동과의 관련성을 살펴보려고 하였다. 여기서 도시 생활 근거지란 전통적인 생활 기반만 가리키는 것이 아니라 근대도시로서의 변모, 즉 행정 및 법원, 경찰 등 일제의 억압적 통치를 유지하려는 제반 기관, 근대적인 학교, 병원, 우체국 등 사회경제적 연결망 등도 포함한다. 둘째, 개성시민의 생활 공간 변화에 큰 영향을 끼친 것으로 1912년 개성시가지 토지조사에 따른 제반 변화를 살펴보려고 하였다. 일제의 토지조사를 통해 개성시민들이 거주하는 공간 변화, 즉 거주지 지번체계의 변화로 시가지 공간 구획의 개편으로 이어졌다. 1910년 일제의 식민지 통치기관이 개성 송도면 대화정을 중심으로 자리잡았으며, 일본인도 개성시내로 침탈해 오기 시작하였다. 개성시민들은 8천여명이 거주하고 있었고, 토지소유의 편차도 크게 있어 조선인 토지소유자는 5,680명이었지만, 1천평 이상 382명이 전체 조선인 토지의 80%를 차지할 정도로 편중이 심했다. 또한 개성 시내를 포괄하는 송도면 지역내에 전통적 상권인 북부·남부정이라는 남북축과 대화정과 서본정 등 서부축과의 길항관계가 보여주는 공간적 변화가 있었다. 일본상인들의 개성 진출에 대항하여 개성상인들은 기존의 상인들을 연결해 보려는 개성상업회의소를 비롯하여 각종 단체를 합자회사나 합명회사로 개편하면서 자본금을 키우고 영업지역도 국내외 수출무역으로 확대해 나갔다. 일본인 상권은 이후 크게 발전하지 못하고 도리어 위축하였다. 1920년대에는 자본의 규모도 커지고 개성상인의 제2세대인 김정호 등이 새로운 경영기법으로 개성지역 상업회사를 발전시켜 나갔다. 결론적으로 개성상인의 상업활동은 개성지역 특유의 근면과 신용을 기반으로 하여 한 평의 땅이라도 자신의 이름로 등록하려는 치열한 소유권 인식을 바탕으로 했다. This study traced changes in the city of Gaesong and the economic foundation of Gaesong merchants in the early Japanese colonial rule. The main point of the discussion was to examine the administrative and social changes of Gaesong in the early days of the Japanese colonial period to examine the changes in the urban population of Gaesong citizens and their connection to commercial activities. The city's living base does not only refer to the traditional living base, but also includes the transformation of modern cities, such as administration, courts, and police, as well as socioeconomic networks such as modern schools, hospitals and post offices. Moreover, it had a significant impact on the changes in the living space of the citizens of Gaesong and intended to examine the changes in the land survey in Gaesong in 1912. Through a Japanese land survey, changes in the space where citizens of Gaesong reside, or the change in the number system of residence, led to the reorganization of the urban space compartment. In 1910, the Japanese colonial government building was centered around Daehwajeong in Songdo-myeon, Gaesong, and the Japanese began to invade downtown Gaesong. The citizens of living within Gaesong were approximately 8,000 people, and there were wide variations in land ownership resulting in 5,680 Korean landowners with 382 people over 1,000 pyeong occupying 80% of the total Korean land. In addition, in the Songdo-myeon area that encompasses downtown Gaeseong, there was a spatial change that was shown by the antagonistic relationship between the north and south axis of the traditional business districts, the North and South, and the western axis of Daehwajeong and Seobonjeong. In response to Japanese merchants' advance into Gaesong, the merchants of Gaesong have expanded their capital and expanded their business areas to domestic and foreign export trade by reorganizing various organizations, including the Gaesong Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Since then, Japanese businesses have not developed much and have shrunk. In the 1920s, the scale of capital increased, and Kim Jeongho, the second generation of Gaesong merchants, developed commercial companies in the Gaesong region with new management techniques. In conclusion, the commercial activities of the Gaesong merchants were based on the fierce recognition of ownership to register even a piece of land under their own name based on the diligence and credit unique to the Gaesong region.

일제하 개성상인의 상업전통 연구 -‘地方出商’을 중심으로-

양정필 한국민족운동사학회 2012 한국민족운동사연구 Vol.0 No.72

개성상인에게 ‘지방출상’은 매우 오래된 상업전통이며, 개성상인을 대대로 재생산하는 핵심 전통이었다. 그러한 ‘지방출상’의 일제하 존재양태를 출상 유형, 출상인 수, 출상 지역, 주요 취급 품목과 자본 규모 등을 통해 살펴보려고 한다. 지방출상에는 ‘행상과 ’出稼‘라는 두 방식이 있었다. 전자는 개성 인근 장시를 순회하면서 장사하는 것이고, 후자는 원격지로 진출, 그곳에 상업 거점을 마련하여 활동하는 방식이다. 이 두 방식의 자본 규모를 보면 ’행상‘은 적은 자금으로도 가능한 반면 출가는 상대적으로 많은 자본이 요구되었다. 가난한 개성인은 대개 ’행상‘으로 밑천을 마련하고 이후 ’출가‘로 전환하여 더 큰 돈을 모으는 경우가 많았다. 출상인 수는 1910년대에는 대개 3천여 명 정도로 볼 수 있다. 이 중 1천8백여 명은 출가 방식을, 나머지 1천2백여 명은 행상 방식을 선택하고 있었다. 1920~1930년대에도 대개 2~3천여 명은 出商하고 있었던 것으로 보인다. 출상 지역으로 중요한 곳은 개성 인근인 황해도, 경기 북부, 강원 서부 등지였다. 이곳은 조선전기부터 개성인에게 앞마당과도 같은 곳이었다. 개성 출상인은 개성 인근뿐 아니라 전국적으로 진출하였다. 특히 일제하에서는 충청도와 함경도로 활발하게 진출하였다. 반면 평안도로는 진출이 미약하였다. 출상인은 시대의 변화에 대응하여 전통 상업중심지보다는 새롭게 부상하던 상업 중심지로 적극 진출하였다. 출상인의 취급 품목은 매우 다양하였는데 그 중에서도 잡화와 포목이 특히 중요하였다. 품목 선택은 자금의 제약을 받았다. 행상인은 대개 수십 원에서 수백 원 정도, 출가 상인은 1천원 이상의 자본을 갖고 장사하였다. 마지막으로는 구체적인 사례로서 대구에 진출한 김홍조와 이근무, 성진에 진출한 이홍근, 서울에 진출한 김형태 등의 활동을 살펴보았다. 그들은 사환 혹은 행상 활동을 통해 상업에 발을 들여놓았고, 출가 상인이 된 후에는 해당 지역에서 10~20년씩 정주하면서 상업활동을 전개하여 巨商으로 성장해 갔다. 이러한 일제하 ‘지방출상’의 존재양태를 통해 개성상인이 식민지 하에서도 상업전통을 효율적으로 활용하면서 경제 활동을 전개하였음을 확인할 수 있을 것이다. 그리고 이는 한국사에서 제국주의 침략기에도 상업전통이 쇠퇴하지 않고 오히려 전통 상업ㆍ상인이 근대적으로 변모하는 과정에서 중요한 역할을 담당하였음을, 그래서 근대 상업의 발전, 근대 상인의 성장은 그러한 전통의 기반 위에서 이루어지고 있었음을 의미한다. Gaesung merchants were groups that ultimately represented Joseon since the 15th century, whose strength and potential enabled them to grow not decline despite the economic penetration of the Japanese colonial power in post-1900s. The very engine for Gaesung merchants to continuously prosper during the colonial times was their legacy of commercial traditions. This article took a special look into ‘地方出商’(jibang-choolsang) aspect of their traditions. ‘jibang-choolsang’ means Gaesung merchants conducting businesses not in their own town, but elsewhere. Its roots can be traced back to the latter 15th century. The jibang-choolsang mechod was fully utilized by Gaesung entrepreneurs, so as to maintain and develop their sphere of commercial influence even during the colonial era. There were two kinds of jibang-choolsang. One was called ‘行商’(‘haengsang’), which was peddling around the marketplaces around Gaesung area. The other was ‘出稼’(‘choolga’), which basically meant that one has to establish a shop faraway from Gaesung and conduct economic activities there. These two types differed substantially not just in distance, but also in volume of capital. Haengsang required relatively small funding, which became the main choice for poor Gaesung traders, while choolga demanded far more. The number of choolsang merchants was around 3000 in the 1910s. 1800 of them chose choolga while the rest of 1200 were subjected to haengsang. Even during the 1920s and 30s, approximately two to three thousand were engaged in 出商. There were around 600 Gaesung merchants who profited economically through choolsang method in circa-1940. The most important choolsang zones were Hwanghae province, northern Gyeonggi province, and western Gangwon, which were all neighboring Gaesung. Although choolsang districts were nationwide phenomenon, there were certain provincial disparities : weak moves into Pyeongan, while active in Choongchung and Hamgyeong provinces, for instance. The choolsang merchants of colonial Korea energetically pioneered not into established trade centres, but into new commercial cores such as railways nucleus or large-scale engineering works. In terms of capital, Haengsang needed tens to hundreds of won, while it was essential for choolga to have at least 1000 won. Such were the business patterns of colonial jibang-choolsang, which ascertains that the heritage of Joseon-period commercial transactions did indeed played a critical role in the economic endeavors of Gaesung merchants during colonial times. This fact eventually signifies that Korean commercial traditions did not deteriorate during imperialistic encroachments but essentially contributed to their modern transformation, which brings us to the conclusion that modern development of commerce and merchants was generated from those grounds.

조선후기 개성의 도시 발달과 지역의식의 성장

노영구(Roh, Young-Koo) 서울시립대학교 서울학연구소 2016 서울학연구 Vol.- No.63

본 논문은 17세기 후반 이후 개성의 도시발달 양상을 이 지역의 정치, 행정적 위상의 강화와 관련된 것으로 이해하고, 이것이 이후 개상의 상업 발달에 큰 영향을 미친 것으로 파악하고자 한 것이다. 개성은 17세기 후반 이 지역의 방어체계가 정비되면서 군사력의 확대로 인해 지역 발전이 나타나기 시작하였다. 18세기 들어 개성 지역의 상업 발달이 본격적으로 나타나면서 개성의 영역 확대와 함께 점차 개성 지역이 한성을 둘러싼 외곽 군사 거점의 하나가 아닌 개성 주변 지역을 아우른 독자적인 공간의 중심지로 발전하였다. 개성의 정치, 경제적 성장은 개성 지역에 대한 독자성과 역사적 자부심으로 나타났는데, 이는 개성이 고려의 옛 수도였다는 이른바 舊都의식으로 표현되었다. 개성 지역의 독자적 지역 인식은 19세기 이후에는 개성 사람이라는 자부심과 조선에 대한 비판의식으로 나타나기도 하였다. This article is an attempt to understand the pattern and the influence of urban development at Kaesong in the late Joseon period. The urban development of Kaesong was related with strengthening the political-administrative status of this region. And the regional development went along with the growth of commerce in Kaesong. In the late 17th century, the intensified defense system in this region led to expand the military, which eventually triggered the urban development. During the 18th century, the expansion of commerce in this region had conferred advantages on Kaesong, which became a distinct city widened to include surrounding areas. In this way, Kaesong developed from a military strong-point for Hanseong into a major city of Joseon. It was natural that residents in Kaesong gradually had their own identity and felt historical proud of their city. Often this perception emerged as a consciousness that Kaesong was the former capital of Goryeo dynasty. The 19th century saw that the residents developed their identity further and criticized Joseon dynasty based on their view.

월남 개성인의 정착과정과 개성(開城)의 유산(遺産)

양정필 ( Yang Jeong-pil ) 연세사학연구회( 구 연세대학교 사학연구회 ) 2018 學林 Vol.42 No.-

한국전쟁의 휴전협정 결과 개성은 북한에 편입되었다. 전쟁을 피해 월남했던 개성인들은 실향민이 되어 남한 사회에 정착해야 하는 과제를 안게 되었다. 본고에서는 월남 개성인이 남한 사회에 정착하는 과정에서 개성의 遺産이 어떤 역할을 하였는지를 살펴보았다. 개성이 남긴 유산으로는 상업 전통, 인삼 재배 전통, 내부적으로 강한 결속력과 유대감 등이 있다. 이들 유산은 월남 개성인의 남한 정착 과정에서 큰 역할을 하였다. 상업 전통이 강한 개성 출신인 만큼 월남 개성인 중에는 기업을 경영하거나 상업에 종사한 이들이 적지 않았다. 그 중에는 재벌급으로 성장한 이들도 있는 반면 중소 도시의 소규모 상점을 운영한 사람도 있는 등 내부적으로 그 층위는 다양하였다. 대개 그들은 분단 이전 개성상인으로 상업에 종사한 경험을 가진 이들이 많았고, 그런 경험이 그들에게 큰 도움이 되었다. 또 월남 개성인들은 기업을 세우고 경영하면서 동향인끼리 서로 도움을 주고받았다. 그것은 공동 투자의 방식으로 나타나기도 하고, 기업 경영에 조언을 주는 방식으로도 이루어졌다. 인삼 재배 역시 월남 개성인이 남한 사회에서 경제적으로 성공하는 데 일정한 역할을 하였다. 19세기부터 인삼을 재배해 온 개성인에게 인삼은 매우 소중한 것이었다. 월남 이후 한 동안 인삼을 경작할 수 없었지만, 1957년 개성삼업조합이 재결성되면서 월남 개성인의 삼포 경영이 시작되었다. 전업으로 하는 이들도 있고 공동 투자자로 나선 사람도 있었다. 월남 개성인에게 인삼은 단순한 상품에 그치지 않고 고향과 두고 온 가족을 떠올리게 하는 그런 존재였다. 그리고 인삼 재배는 월남 개성인이 남한 사회에서 경제적으로 안정된 삶을 사는 데도 일조하였다. 개성인 내부의 강한 결속력과 유대감은 경제적으로 어려운 사람이나 미성년자가 남한 사회에 정착하는 데 큰 도움이 되었다. 10대의 나이에 부모 없이 피난 온 경우, 경제 활동이 뜻대로 되지 않아 경제적 어려움에 처한 경우 등 월남 개성인 중에도 고난에 처한 이들이 있었다. 월남 개성인들은 그들에게 도움의 손길을 내밀었다. 이를 통해 그들이 남한 사회에 잘 적응할 수 있었음은 물론이다. 월남 개성인은 대체로 남한 사회에서 성공적으로 정착하였는데, 여기에는 고향 개성의 유산이 큰 역할을 하였다. The armstice of the Korean War led to the incorporation of Gaesung into north Korea. Those who fled their hometown Gaesung to the south then became displaced, and immediately faced the task of settling in south Korean society. This paper aims to look into the role of Gaesung legacy on the settlement of these people in south Korean society. Gaesung legacy includes commercial tradition, ginseng cultivation, and strong internal solidarity and bond. These qualities played a major role during the settlement of uprooted inhabitants in south Korea. Due to significant commercial heritage, there were notable people of Gaesung origin who have engaged in entrepreneurship or business. Among those, some grew to the rank of conglomerates, others simply ran small shops in middle or small-size cities, which situations portray a wide range of spectrum. Such phenomenon were mainly attributed to their experiences in pre-division era of the peninsula, when many pursued mercantile operations. Also, Gaesung people of south Korea established companies and helped fellow immigrants. Their cooperation was demonstrated in the form of co-investments, or giving advice on corporate management. Ginseng cultivation attributed to the economic success of Gaesung people in south Korean society as well. Ginseng was almost their soul since Gaesung locals grew this medicinal plant since the 19th century. After their escape, Gaesung refugees in the south could not raise ginseng until 1957, when Gaesung Ginseng Industry Union was reorganized. Then, some made it their full-time occupation, while others merely acted as co-investors. To Gaesung refugees, ginseng was more than just a commodity, but a memory of everything they left behind in their home including families. Ginseng naturally was also their blessing because its cultivation brought them economic security. Impressive solidarity and bond of Gaesung people assisted fellow refugees who were poor or non-adult immensely in settling down in south Korea. In case of those teenagers who evacuated without parents, quite a few suffered economic hardships. Those who established themselves in the South aided those in need, and helped desperate hometown immigrants adjust well to south Korean society. Most of Gaesung people successfully settled in south Korea, and Gaesung legacy indeed was the dominant factor.

일제 강점기 군산 영동 상가 개성상인 김용진(金瑢鎭)·한민수(韓民洙)·홍종식(洪鍾植)의 거주지 이동과 군산에서의 삶

김두헌(Kim Doo-Heon) 한국외국어대학교 역사문화연구소 2020 역사문화연구 Vol.76 No.-

일제 강점기 군산 영동 상가 개성상인 김용진, 한민수, 홍종식 등은 보다 나은 상업적 이익을 얻기 위해 안면도와 목포 등을 경유하여 군산으로 이주하였다. 이들은 군산에서 상업 활동을 하면서도 가족 일부 또는 대다수를 개성에서 거주하게 하면서 고향 개성을 삶의 근거지로 계속 유지하였다. 상대적으로 이동성이 강한 개성 상인이면서도, 고향 개성을 삶의 근거지로 중시하였던 것이다. 이들은 영동 상가에서 포목 관련 업종에 종사하였고, 혼인을 통해 인척관계를 형성하면서 긴밀한 유대관계를 맺었으며, 사업장에서는 가족들이 협업하는 등 강한 결속력과 협동력을 보였다. 천주교를 신앙으로 선택하여, 불모지나 다름없던 군산 지역에 군산 공소를 설립하여 천주교를 활성화시켰으며, 신앙 공동체 대표로서 교회 설립을 위해 많은 액수를 기부하는 등 적극적인 신앙생활을 전개하였다. 이들 중에 특히 김용진은 주변의 불우한 아동들의 문맹 탈피를 위해 오랜기간 동안 많은 사재를 쾌척하여 야학교를 운영하였다. 이상의 일제 강점기 항해 도시 군산에서의 개성상인들의 삶에 대한 본 연구의 결과가 향후 근대기 또는 일제 강점기 개성상인들의 삶의 모습에 대한 연구의 촉진제가 되기를 기대한다. In the Japanese occupation period, the Gaesong(開城) merchants, Kim Yong-Jin(金瑢鎭), Han Min-Soo(韓民洙), and Hong Jong-Sik(洪鍾植) moved to Gunsan(群山) via Anmyeondo(安眠島) and MokPo(木浦), etc. for better commercial gain. While doing commercial activities in Gunsan, they kept their hometown, Gaesong as a base for their lives, allowing some or most of their families to reside in Gaesong. Although they were a highly mobile merchants, they valued his hometown, Gaesong as a commercial base. They were engaged in the industry related to linen and cotton in the Yeongdong shopping district in Gunsan, and formed close ties through marriages. In the business, families collaborated with each other. They showed strong solidarity and cooperation. They chose Catholicism as their spiritual resting place and established a Gunsan Gongso(公所, small church) in Gunsan, which was almost barren, to promote Catholicism and to donate a large amount of money to establish the church. In order to break away from illiteracy among underprivileged children around him, Kim Yong-Jin managed a night school for a long time. This study expects to be a facilitator on all aspects of the Gaesong merchant‘s life in the Japanese occupation period.

18~19세기 開城의 市廛과 상업관행

변광석(Byun Kwang-Seok) 부산경남사학회 2007 역사와 경계 Vol.64 No.-

In addition to the traders who were dependent on peddling, the government-patronized merchants took charge of commercial activities in Gaesung. The government-patronized street, commercial center in Gaesung's downtown was situated on both sides of the main road of the South Gate. This was a business quarter composed of many patronized and private merchants. Twenty patronized stores existed, including four great stores. The patronized stores had system of a mutual-aid society mainly. Four great patronized stores had a character of common meeting body of high rank organization, and right to investigate and settle all the commercial entanglements there under the mandate of administrative office. They had privileges similar to those of six stores in Seoul. Therefore, they bore the burden of much material and commercial tax than any other patronized stores. The exclusive right to goods of patronized stores was important in terms of the commercial power. The right in Gaesung was effective other than that in Seoul as late as the mid-19th century. In 1855, for exampel, private merchants was punished on complaint of patronized stores. The financial operation in Gaesungbu rested on the commercial tax and increase of interest, which meant that patronized and private stores had some relation to finance of government office. The guild of patronized stores was supposed to pay its taxes to government office regularly, but amount to be borne mattered as time went by. Therefore, patronized stores had to pay their taxes to government office without fail, because it came into close relation to financial standing and operational system. The operational method of patronized stores in Gaesung was the same as that in Seoul. It was confirmed in way that government investigated the problems of operation of patronized stores. This matter was associated with the financial problem of Gaesung, commercial taxes, and the collection of taxes from patronized stores. The privileged loan was made between government office and patronized stores. If patronized stores suffered from the financial difficulties, it was made at the request of patronized stores. Both patronized and private merchants in Gaesung borrowed money. For example, townsmen in Gaesung borrowed silver coins of a hundred thousand in 1730, and so on. Gaesung was distinctive in that it lend a huge amount of loan to all the merchants of the first, the second, and the third grades as well as patronized merchants regularly, and stimulated commerce. It maintained the system of patronized stores by collecting interest mainly. It could be examined through the examples of exclusive right, commercial tax, price of goods delivered as a tax, and collection of tax, and so on in general patronized stores, including the four great patronized stores in the 18th and 19th centuries.

朝鮮前期 開城商人의 商業活動

朴平植 조선시대사학회 2004 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.30 No.-

This paper studied the Gaesung(開城) Merchants' commercial activities in the early Chosun(朝鮮) Dynasty from a viewpoint of domestic commerce and foreign trade, being based on the commercial environment in Gaesung. The Gaesung Merchants of the early Chosun Dynasty had been competing with Seoul Merchants for both the domestic and international commerce rights, utilizing the historical experiences of the commercial culture formed out of Koryŏ(高麗) on the basis of the commercially peculiar surroundings of Gaesung which had been called ‘commercial city’ since the foundation of Chosun Dynasty. In this process, despite the commercial policy of ‘Restraining Commercewhich Chosun government had advocated and emphasized, overcoming it, they learned to form the commercial organization that was characterized as the credit and banding together. They, consequently, accumulated an enormous fortune to be equal to Seoul Merchants. In the long run, this aspect that the Gaesung Merchants showed in the commercial history of early Chosun reflected the position of the economic category which commerce couldn't help having in disrelation to Restraining Commerce’ of Chosun government and socio-function of merchants. Moreover, such Gaesung commerce and Gaesung Merchants' positions not only proved that the commercial tradition of Koryŏ had not been extinguished in the Chosun which looked on Neo-Confucian Metaphysics(性理學) as Nation-ideological study, but also must have been the historical assumption both the domestic commerce and foreign trade development in the late Chosun.

16세기 개성 유자(儒者) 한순계(韓舜繼)의 상업 활동

박평식(Park, Pyeong-Sik) 한국사연구회 2020 한국사연구 Vol.- No.190

조선 초기 개성의 위상과 기능

한희숙(Han Hee-sook) 한국역사연구회 2011 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.79

This paper examines how the status and function of the Gae'seong city, the former capital of the Goryeo dynasty, changed after the fall of Goryeo. The Gae'seong city in the early days of the Joseon Dynasty, which has actually never been properly discussed, will be examined here. How Gae'seong obtained its status as a city with an important history after the foundation of Joseon, and how the urban side of this city developed during the dynasty's early days, will all be examined here. The nature of this study differs from those of previous studies, as it primarily deals with certain changes that occurred during the early days of Joseon, with a focus upon urban historical perspectives. Gae'seong had been the political and commercial center of the Goryeo dynasty and also the Korean peninsula for a very long time, yet when Han'yang became the new capital, Gae'song was no longer able to hold its previous position as a political center. Gae'seong became a city (a) important for [only] commercial activities and consumption, (b) through which envoys passed on their way to Ming on diplomatic missions, (c) that had played a significant role in the foundation of the Joseon Dynasty, and (d) where the Royal tombs of the Joseon royal family members remained. In the early days of the Joseon dynasty, Gae'seong continued to change rather slowly, and departments of Yuhu-sa and Yusu-bu were created. They were in charge of the administrative governing of Gae'seong. Gae'seong's character was strong, as the No.2 capital of the dynasty and also the kings' own home town until the reign of King Taejong. However, from the time of King Sejong, these characteristics diminished, and the old attributes as the 'previous capital' were strengthened. Also, Gae'seong became a major traffic point for the foreign diplomatic envoys that were headed for the Joseon capital, and functioned as a major regional commercial city, second only to the city of Han'yang.