지방주의의 역사-지정학

차승기(Cha, Seung Ki) 전남대학교 글로벌디아스포라연구소 2012 디아스포라 연구 Vol.6 No.2

식민지/제국 시기 내지로 도항한 조선인들을 결합시키고 분열시키는 데 준거가 되었던 범주는 단지 ‘민족’과 ‘계급’만은 아니었다. 민족적?계급적 차별이 내지의 조선인들을 동질적 집단으로 결속시키기도 했고, 차별 탈피에의 욕구를 발생시키며 분열을 초래하기도 했음은 이미 잘 알려져 있다. 그러나 이뿐만 아니라, 조선인들은 출신지역과 이어지는 ‘지역의식’ 또는 ‘지역감정’에 따라 서로 다른 정체성을 형성하며 갈등하기도 했다. 이러한 현상은 식민지/제국 체제 내에서 소수민족의 정체성이 ‘민족’ 단위와 구별되는 지역적 원천을 가질 수 있었다는 사실에 눈을 돌리게 해 줄 뿐만 아니라, 식민지/제국의 역내 이동 및 정주가 어떠한 역사적 규정성 속에서 이루어졌는지를 보다 구체적으로 알려준다. 식민지/제국 시기 내지의 소수자로서의 조선인들은 민족적 차별에 의해 긍정적으로든 부정적으로든 ‘조선인’으로서의 규정성에 사로잡힐 수밖에 없었지만, 이 ‘조선인’은 서로 다른 지역의식을 형성하며 내적으로 경쟁하고 있기도 했다. 이렇게 분할된 의식을 형성하게 된 데에는 당국에 의한 도항의 관리와 조절, 노동환경의 차이, 출신지역 중심의 거주환경 등 다양한 요인들이 작용했던 것으로 보인다. 이 글은 식민지/제국 시기 내지 조선인들이 출신지와 관련해 갖게 된 지역의식을, 식민지/제국 체제 내에서의 지역 경계의 변동, 역내 이동에 대한 당국의 관리?조절 및 인구 지배의 동력학, 그리고 그 아래에서 움직였던 조선인들의 대응을 통해 맥락화하고자 했다. During the Imperial Japan period, countless Koreans migrated to the main islands of Japan, the Naichi (內地), and were subjected to prejudice and discrimination based on their ethnicity and class. In their effort to escape this categorical discrimination, some Koreans opted for an “exit,” generating friction and division amongst themselves. This paper looks at regionalism as a source of identification for Koreans in Japan. Koreans could not unchain themselves from the categorical shackle called the Ch?senjin, but mushrooming regional identities within the Ch?senjin settlement communities were to cause internal schisms. The development of such divisive, region-based identities was in large part intimately linked to the colonial government’s calculated control of Korean migration to Japan, and differentiation of working conditions and living environments based on the regions from which Koreans came. I argue how regionalism emerged as a critical axis of division among the Ch?senjin in Japan, while they were “on the loose” to maneuver themselves within the borders of the empire. Regionalism is examined within the rubric of the colonial government’s surveillance over population movement as well as within the context of Korean negotiations with such heavy-handed yet crafty measure of governance.

식민주의적 신체의 변신을 위하여 : 네그리·하트의 『공통체』, 식민지, `지하 세계`

차승기 ( Cha Seung Ki ) 역사문제연구소 2014 역사문제연구 Vol.18 No.2

This paper offers a critical review of Commonwealth(2009), the last in a trilogy of books co-authored by Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt, in order to explore a paradigm found in Korea under Japanese imperialism. Throughout Commonwealth, Negri and Hardt at-tempt to form a revolutionary program against the global empire built on what they refer to as “the common.” “The common” refers to not only the common wealth of the material world such as air, water, the fruits of the soil, and all of nature`s bounty but also the results of social pro-ductions which are necessary for social interactions and further productions such as knowl-edges, languages, codes, information, affects, and so forth. According to Negri and Hardt, capital intensifies the contradictory movement that exploits and privatizes the common and, at the same time, expands the order based on the common. Today capital today satisfies conditions necessary for restoring the common and revitalize-eing practices in which the subject becomes the other. Accordingly, Negri and Hardt pres-ent a program that liberates a biopolitical production from the relationship with capital through the restoration of the common and the continual metamorphosis of subjectivity. In this article, I trace the path walked by In-Kyu Joo(朱仁奎), a movie actor and revolu-tionary labor activist, in the colonial city Heungnam(興南) which was built by Japanese imperial capital. In doing so, I present a historical paradigm representing the way in which the multitude has produced the common by investigating the process by which the colonial bodies have produced a new subjectivity in the place of primitive accumulation in the colony. I call into question Negri and Hardt`s vision of the transition through the “cumulative production” and try to revitalize the critical moment of the impossibility of production.

사실의 세기, 우연성, 협력의 윤리

차승기 ( Seung Ki Cha ) 민족문학사학회·민족문학사연구소 2008 민족문학사연구 Vol.38 No.-

After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when the over-legal characteristic of the imperial sovereign power has come to the front with the proclamation of the law of national mobilization, literary men of the colonial Chosen have experienced irreconcilability with the world in anxious. This period, when has been controlled to the deepest domain of life and spirit by war efficiency, was an era of uncertainty and indeterminacy that the phase of subject and world was fluid obscurely. In those days, Valery`s expression of the century of fact was circulated, interpreted, and appropriated in literary men of the colonial Chosen, being passed by re-contextualizng of Japanese intellectuals. By them, the thesis of Valery, which implied a critique of freedom of spirit, was transformed to an argument in order to emphasize japanese reality, and was introduced into the colonial Chosen. Through discussions of Paek Chul, Im Hwa, Yu Jino, Kim Namchun etc. about the `fact`, we can examine certain tendencies of shift of boundary of subject/world after the collapse of established forms of subjectivity, which speak for shifting ground of certainty of `self` from `subject` to the world of `fact`. It surely indicate the `powerlessness` of subject, but in this process, it could make an attempt to gaze subjectivity as the being constituted in the world reflectively. On the other hand, the situation of indeterminacy on which they were placed arouses a problem of ethics in a pattern of demanding reestablishment of relationship between subject and world. This reestablishment carried out in the course that life, spirit and act were drawn into the political realm in the time of national mobilization. In this respect, the problem of ethics as such took certain forms of relationship which has been regulated by `collaboration`. It could be called to `the ethical sphere of collaboration`. In this sphere, Paek and Yu have received the world of `fact` as a sole reality, and Im and Kim have endured the world of indeterminacy in search of way to transform a form of subjectivity rather than constitute the world of `fact` a reality. `The ethical sphere of collaboration` is a place where the ethics was to founded on `bare life itself` which is left over deprivation of the order of spirit and the power of order. In other words, it forces a slavery life which seeks for the sole value in surviving. Since the Liberation, it also has been reproduced in operations of sovereign power of nation-state.

제국의 고도古都, 초월의 기술

차승기(Cha Seung-Ki) 상허학회 2010 상허학보 Vol.29 No.-

1942년 제1회 대동아문학자 대회에 참여했던 이광수는 대동아의 문학자들과 함께 ‘내지’의 ‘고도’를 답사하는 경험에서 고향에 온 듯한 느낌을 얻는다. 특히 나라에서 이광수는 스스로를 고대 삼국시대의 조선인으로 환상하는데, 『소녀의 고백』이라는 소설에서 그는 나라를 고향과 동일한 상상지리적 장소에 위치시킨다. 제국의 고도는 일본(내지)-식민지-아시아를 연결하는 본질적인 수도로 위치지어진다. 한편 다양한 ‘성지순례’ 캠페인에 의해 답사되었던 대동아의 성지들은 군사적 상징들과 결합되면서 숭고의 경험을 드러내는 ‘참배기’들을 생산해냈다. 숭고가 표상으로부터 표상불가능성을 발견하게 하는 곳에서, 식민지/제국은 군사적 위력으로부터 ‘황국에의 신뢰’를 상상하게 만든다. 고도와 성지의 존재는 마치 『법화경』의 기본 사상을 공간적으로 펼쳐놓은 듯이 비유될 수 있다. 즉 고도의 존재론은 ‘누구나 부처가 될 수 있다’는 명제와 닮아 있어서 개방되어 있으면서도 폐쇄된 이중 구조를 보여준다. 또한 그것은 ‘일본인이 되는 길’의 구조와도 유사하다. 결국 제국의 고도와 성지는 ‘만세일계’를 공간화하고 ‘팔굉일우’를 시간화한 것이었다고 말할 수 있다. 답사와 순례는 피식민지인이 ‘황민’으로 초월할 것을 기대하며 조직되지만, 고도와 성지가 기대하는 분리와 통합은 역설적으로 그 기대에 어긋날 가능성 속에서 작동한다. Yi, Kwang-Su(李光洙), who experienced ancient cities of imperial Japan accompanied by ‘The Greater East Asian’ men of letters in 1942, has felt like home. Especially in Nara(奈良), he imagined himself as a Korean from the era of the Tree States, and put Nara on the same imagined-geographic place as home in A Young Girl's Confession. The Ancient City has been posited a essential capital that connected the empire-colony-asia. Meanwhile, the sacred places, where have been explored by various pilgrimage campaign, produced worship essays which revealed experiences of sublime combined with military symbols. At the point, which the sublime discovers the inrepresentability from the represention, the colony/empire made to imagine the ‘confidence to the empire’ from the military forces. The existence of the ancient cities and the sacred places, would be likened the spatial realization of the basic thought of the Sutra of the Lotus(法華經). The ontology of the ancient city, similar to the proposition that ‘anyone can be a saint’, shows the double structure that is both opened and closed. It is analogous to the structure which ‘the way becoming Japanese’. It could be said that the ancient cities and the sacred places of the empire both spatialized ‘An Unbroken Line of Emperors(萬世一系)’ and temporalized ‘Universal Brotherhood(八紘一宇)’. However exploration and pilgrimage were organized in expectation of transcending the colonized to the subect of the empire, the division/integration, by which the ancient cities and the sacred places be constituted, operates in the possibility that fails that expectation.

폐허로부터의 비전 : 일제말기 김남천의 소설론과 탈식민의 계기

차승기 ( Cha Seung-ki ) 민족문학사학회·민족문학사연구소 2016 민족문학사연구 Vol.61 No.-

This article aims to explore KIM Nam-cheon’s perception that the politics of literature was essentially related to the conversion of body, and to prove the momentum of decolonization that this conversion implied. In transition period, KIM appreciated literary practice as the socio-political praxis, and sequentially developed his own novel theory such as accusation(告發), moral, custom(風俗), and observation(觀察). His novel theory was not only the attempt to grasp the structure of world and the mechanism of subjectification through novel, but also the theoretical investigation to establish the fictionwriting as the metamorphosis process of the relationships of subject-world and self and others. In discourse on moral-custom, KIM quested the mechanism of subjectification, concerning how the conceptual-general could be related to a bodily ‘self(I).’ KIM took note that the relationship between the conceptual and the singular was constituted by the mediation of the body, and therefore might reach the perception that becoming subject is having a body and that a writer suffers the conversion process of body through the fiction-writing. The realism of self-effacement which the literature theory of observation achieved could be a result of conversion or metamorphosis of the body. It was the novel that grasped the mechanism of subjectification through the conversion of the body. KIM desired to regenerate the Ursprung of novel so as to reveal the structure of the transition period through by depicting the subjectification process. The Ursprung of novel was to represent the prosaic of world, in other words, to comprehend horizontally the world from the bottom. KIM’s theoretical investigation and literary adventure could not bear abundant fruit. However, he deserves to be estimated as a theorist and novelist who faced the world since the Sino-Japanese War as ruins and who sought the momentum for the de-colonization ab intra where imperialism and colonialism were highly-concentrated.

제국의 아상블라주와 사건의 정치학: 무라야마 도모요시(村山知義)와 조선

차승기 ( Seung Ki Cha ) 연세대학교 국학연구원 2013 동방학지 Vol.161 No.-

This article aims to study the way in which a Japanese playwright and theater director MURAYAMA Tomoyoshi(村山知義) encountered with colonial Korea and its people, where he had toured with Shunkoten(春香傳), a play adaption of Korean traditional tale ‘The Story of Chunhyang``. And it also tries to consider the ``eventness`` that this cultural event could generate in the colonial/imperial regime, focusing on the thwarted confluence between Murayama and colonial Korea. He had applied many techniques and aesthetic modes from the paintings into the realm of drama, including European Avant-garde movement and Proletarian theatre movement. During his leading of the theater company Shinkyo(新協), he experimented with the assemblage of Korean traditional tale and Japanese traditional theatrical style of Kabuki(歌舞伎). He sought to deconstruct the context temporality-spatiality-corporality that ‘The Story of Chunhyang(春香傳)’ and the mode of Kabuki layed, and to place Shunkoten(春香傳) on a new horizon beyond class and race boundaries through distribution and recontextualization. However, the Korean Peninsula tour of Shunkoten(春香傳) failed, differently in Japan where Shinkyocould draw the relatively diverse reception and box-office hit. It was the reason that Shunkoten of Shinkyo was interpreted in the completely different mode from Japanese one. Murayama`s avant-garde experiment of decontextualization on ``The Story of Chunhyang`` was only regarded as the cultural misappropriation that the cultural power of imperialism embezzled ``the Koreanness``, by particularly Korean cultural elites. Their criticism overlooked that the experiment of assemblage would pose the possibility beyond the identity, and raised objections to its experimental performance in the limited level of the politics of identity. In this sense, Murayama`s intention went basically athwart what was accepted to his audience, colonial Korean people, and they couldn`t reach an agreement. After he had gone through this ``disagreement``, Murayama reflected his own experience of encounter with the other in the novel Dancheong(丹靑)(1939). The event of ``disagreement`` which occurred in the tour of Shunkoten indicates the diversity of the outside in the colonial/imperial regime. This outside could emerge only from the disagreement that Murayama and colonial Korean elites didn`t reach on the same level. This encounter with disagreement profoundly manifests that the colonial/imperial regime could be no better than the world composed of discord among the things incommensurable.

고귀한 엄숙, 고요한 충성 : 이광수의 예의작법과 감각적인 것의 나눔

차승기 ( Cha Seung-ki ) 인하대학교 한국학연구소 2013 한국학연구 Vol.0 No.29

This article tries to explore the specific relations between ‘affection’ and ‘love’ through gestures and behaviors of characters of Yi Kwang-su(李光洙)’s fictions, to contemplate the virtue of Sophrosyne on the level of the manners and to reveal the meanings of the distribution of the sensible that Yi Kwang-su’s imagined community performed. Sophrosyne was often represented by characters’ gestures and behaviors. The power of Sophrosyne, derived from a sort of cultural order, governs the internal desire and need and works even on the formation of the private/public relationships at the same time. In Yi’s vision of a new community, Sophrosyne would be performed through the indirect and formal conduct of the manners. Based on the promise of a moral dividing line between human and animal, Yi’s ‘affectionate community’ could be made by suppressing the animalistic in the self and deleting the private and become stronger and solider by performative practice of the manners. The manners as an indirect act, which could be relatively formalized, would reveal the activities of ideological practical system in which the subject were living with the imaginary relations to the reality. Through the mechanism of self-alienation resulted from the anxiety about the excessive intimacy, we can ascertain the ontological site of the pioneers in Yi’s world. The practice of the manners of this solemn being, who pursues the self-sufficiency by isolating oneself from the instinct or the private interest, comes to gestures of loyalty to organizing power of the world that he/she wants to escape from. The bodies in Yi’s fiction world has been organized by stable borders. They indicate that disputing over a given social relationship and transforming it is questioning an existing (b)order on physical senses and inseparable of its reorganization.

흔들리는 제국, 탈식민의 문화정치학 -황민화의 테크놀로지와 그 역설-

차승기 ( Seung Ki Cha ) 연세대학교 국학연구원 2009 동방학지 Vol.146 No.-

두 개의 `전후`, 두 가지 애도 -`전후` 한국과 일본, 가난한 아이들의 일기를 둘러싼 해석들-

차승기 ( Cha Seung-ki ) 국제한국문학문화학회 2016 사이 Vol.21 No.-

This article considers the political and semantic contexts of the cultural appropriation in the translation of the diaries of disadvantaged children. YASUMOTO Sueko`s Nianchang (1958) and LEE Yoonbok`s Cry, The Sad Sky (1964) - two diaries from Japan and Korea - were translated and made into films that came to represent cultural markers for that period. The immediate translations and culturally appropriated language and media suggest that Korea and Japan shared a common historical interpretation. The diaries of the children showed their life to be miserable and showed their struggles for survival, while raising ethical social issues. The essence of social emotion-acts as a response to ethical issues can be seen as Trauerarbeit (mourning) for the `post-war experience.` Japanese society`s response to a poor Zainichi Korean girl`s diary were Trauerarbeit, involving the rupture from post-war Japan as it entered high economic growth. In contrast, the Korean social response to a poor boy`s diary was an ambiguous mixture of Trauerarbeit, for its poor past, and compassion from general the perception of similar straits. In this regard, the cultural appropriation of Cry, The Sad Sky in Korea and Japan is worthy of notice. The film Cry, The Sad Sky (1965) could lead the Korean audience to expect the state-dominated `escape from poverty`, by highlighting the status of teacher KIM Dongsik as an `alternative farther=government.` On the contrary, Oshima Nagisa`s radical documentary Yunbogi`s Diary (1965), which was motivated by his critique of the 1965 Treaty between Korea and Japan, had the expectation that these poor children would grow into subjects of resistance.

문학이라는 장치 -식민지/제국 체제와 일제말기 문학장의 성격-

차승기 ( Seung Ki Cha ) 한국문학연구학회 2011 현대문학의 연구 Vol.0 No.44

이 글은 ``장치(dispositif)``라는 개념을 통해 근대문학의 제도성 또는 장치성을 재검토하고, 그 연장선 위에서 식민지/제국 체제와 식민지 조선 문학장의 특이성을 해명하고자 한다. ``구체적인 권력관계 속에 기입되어 전략적으로 기능하는 담론, 제도, 법, 지식 등의 네트워크``를 지시하는 푸코의 장치 개념은 아감벤에 의해 ``생명체들의 몸짓, 행동, 의견, 담론을 포획, 규정, 차단, 제어, 보장하는 능력을 지닌 모든 것``으로 일반화된다. 아감벤의 개념을 참조할 때 장치는 단지 규율권력의 편재를 의미하기보다 살아 있는 개개의 존재자들이 사회를 구성하면서 포획되는 다층적이고 불균등한 조건을 뜻하게 된다. 이런 의미에서 장치는 단지 규율적·통제적 기능을 수행할 뿐만 아니라 ``인간적인`` 욕망을 발육시키는 장소가 되며, 이 유토피아적 계기를 가운데 두고 장치와 살아 있는 생명체들 사이에서 발생하는 길항과 투쟁을 주체화의 길로 인도하는 형식이 되기도 한다. 식민지는 식민지와 식민본국 사이의 불균등하고 비대칭적인 존재론적·법적·정치적 관계에 의해 규정될 때에만 식민지일 수 있는데, 바로 이러한 관계가 인간화·주체화의 조건 및 형식과 직결되어 있다는 점에서 장치 개념은 식민지의 역사적 특이성을 해명하는 데도 유용할 것으로 보인다. 식민지와 제국 사이의 차별이 구조화된 연루관계를 지시하기 위해 이 글에서는 ``식민지/제국 체제``라는 개념을 사용한다. 식민지/제국 체제의 체제로서의 지속의 조건은 통제적 합리화, 욕망의 내재화, 가시성의 절대화에 달려 있다. 그리고 이 체제의 비유기적인 구성요소로서의 문학은 식민지의 생명체들에 특정한 주체성의 가상을 부여하는 장치로서 작동한다. 다양한 담론적·비담론적 조건이 결합되어 만들어내는, 특정한 ``의미를 갖는`` 쓰기/읽기/말하기/듣기 체제로서의 근대문학은 ``반성적(내면적) 주체``와 ``상상적 연대의 주체``=국민적 주체를 구성했다. 이 주체성은 각각 ``고유한 자기``를 소유하고자 하는 꿈과 ``무한한 소통가능성``의 꿈을 분리된 영역에서 포획하고 있다. 이와 같은 주체성을 생산해내는 장치로서의 문학이 특정한 ``전달가능성``의 체제를 전제하고 있다면, 이 전달가능성이 (어떤 방향에서든) 벽에 부딪칠 때 장치의 장치로서의 성격이 전경화된다. 중일전쟁 발발 이후 총력전 시기는 식민지/제국 체제의 ``체제``로서의 성격이 극명하게 드러난 시기이며, 또한 ``조선문학의 위기``라는 형태로 문학장의 변동이 표면화된 시기이다. 전쟁, 동원, 외지의 내지화 등은 문학장의 구조를 변동시키며, (그동안 근대문학의 장치 속에서 생산되어 왔지만 은폐되어 있었던) 기술자-작가와 번역가-작가를 산출하는 효과를 발휘한다. This study aims to examine the institutionality or apparatusness of modern literature, and to clarify the singularity of colonial/imperial regime and colony`s literary sphere. Foucault`s concept of dispositif is a thoroughly heterogenous ensemble consisting of discourses, institutions, architectural forms, regulatory decisions, laws, administrative measures, scientific statements, philosophical, moral and philanthropic propositions-in short, the said as much as the unsaid. Agamben generalize it into anything that has in some way the capacity to capture, orient, determine, intercept, model, control, or secure the gestures, behaviors, opinions, or discourses of living beings. In the light of Agamben`s concept, dispositif means not the omnipresence of disciplinary powers, but multilayered uneven conditions into which living beings are captured. In this sense, dispositif doesn`t only perform some disciplinary control function, but also provides sites for developing the ``human`` desire. So it also becomes the form of subjectification which is constituted in antagonism between dispositif and living beings. Colony is the colony under the determination of uneven asymmetry ontological, legal, political relationship between colony and empire. The concept of dispositif is applicable to clarify the historical singularity of the colony, because this relationship is connected directly with the conditions of humanization and subjectification. For indicating the implicated relationship between colony and empire, I use the concept of the ``colonial/imperial regime``. The condition of durability as regime of the colonial/imperial regime, depends upon the rationalization of control, the internalization of desire, and the absolutization of visibility. And literature as inorganic element of this regime, operates as dispositif, which offers appearances of subjectivity to living beings of the colony. The modern literature as a certain ``significant`` writing/reading/speakin g/hearing regime, which is made by manifold discursive, undiscursive conditions, constitutes ``the reflexive (internal) subject`` and ``the subject of imaginary solidarity``=national subject. These subjects seizures the dreams that want to possess the ``proper self``, and the dreams that want to communicate infinitely, in the separated territory respectively. If literature as dispositif which produces these subjectivities premises a certain regime of ``communicability(Mitteilbarkeit)``, when this communicability reaches a deadlock, the characteristics as dispositif of dispositif would be exposed clearly. During the total war, since the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the characteristics as the ``regime`` of the colonial/imperial regime was revealed clearly, and the structural change of literary sphere come to the surface in the form of ``the crisis of Choseon Literature(朝鮮文學)``. In the wake of the war, mobilization, and internalization of the colony, the structure of literary sphere changed and that produced the technician-writer and translator-writer who had been concealed in dispositif of the modern literature.