Study of Working Memory Intervention in Children with Delay in Vocabulary Development

Shinyoung Kim(김신영),Dongsun Yim(임동선) 한국언어청각임상학회 2015 Communication Sciences and Disorders Vol.20 No.4

언어장애 아동이 보이는 언어문제에 대해 기저의 처리 기제에 관심을 갖는 연구들이 꾸준히 있어 왔으며, 많은 연구들이 작업기억에 주목하였다. 본 연구에서는 어휘발달지체(VD) 아동의 작업기억을 활성화하는 중재가 대상 아동의 작업기억 및 언어능력에 미치는 영향을 검토해보고자 하였다. 방법: 본 연구는 총 12명의 아동(VD 아동 6명, 이들과 생활연령을 일치시킨 일반아동 6명)을 대상으로 작업기억 과제 수행력 차이를 검토하고, 사전사후 설계로 VD 집단(5;7-7;4)을 대상으로 5주간 주 3회의 집중적인 작업기억 중재를 실시한 후 중재 전후의 작업기억 과제(비단어따라말하기, CLPT, matrix) 및 언어능력 과제(REVT, K-TTFC, 문장따라말하기, 문법성판단)의 수행력을 비교하였다. 결과: 본 연구의 결과 VD 집단이 일반아동 집단에 비해 세 가지 작업기억 과제의 수행력이 모두 유의하게 낮은 것으로 나타났다. 작업기억 중재 후 VD 집단의 작업기억 과제 수행력은 CLPT (단어회상)에서 유의한 향상을 보였으며, 언어능력 과제는 REVT, K-TTFC, 문장따라말하기, 문법성판단(반응속도)의 수행력이 유의하게 향상되었다. 논의 및 결론: 본 연구에서 사용한 구어 작업기억 중재 프로그램이 VD 집단의 작업기억 용량을 확대하고, 어휘(REVT) 및 청각적 언어이해력과 주의집중력(K-TTFC), 구문능력(문장따라말하기, 문법성판단)을 향상시킨 것으로 나타났다. 즉, 작업기억에 직접적으로 개입하여 중재함으로써 작업기억과 나아가 언어능력에까지 미치는 영향을 검토했다는 데에 의의가 있다. Studies have carried out the base of the processing mechanism regarding language problems of children with language impairments, focusing on working memory. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of intervention aimed at activating working memory in children with delay in vocabulary development (VD) and the subsequent effect on working memory and language ability. Methods: A total of 12 children (6 children with VD and 6 typically developing children [TD] matched by chronological age) age 5-7 were assessed through working memory tasks. Pre-post design was used to compare differences among working memory tasks (nonword repetition, Competing Language Processing Task [CLPT], and matrix) and language tasks (Receptive & Expressive Vocabulary Test [REVT], Korean-Token Test for Children [K-TTFC], sentence repetition, and grammaticality judgment) in the VD group. Children with VD were provided with intensive intervention sessions 3 times a week for 5 weeks. Results: The research found that the VD group showed lower performance than the TD group in working memory tasks. After intervention for activating working memory, the children with VD showed improvement in one of the working memory tasks (CLPT-word recall) and several language tasks (REVT, K-TTFC, sentence repetition, reaction time for grammaticality judgment). Conclusion: Working memory intervention resulted in increased working memory capacity, improved vocabulary (REVT), auditory comprehension of language and attention (K-TTFC), and syntactic ability (sentence repetition, and grammaticality judgment). Therefore, intervention for working memory has a positive effect on not only working memory capacity but language ability as well.

정신분열병 환자의 작업기억 장애

김명선 한국건강심리학회 2005 한국심리학회지 건강 Vol.10 No.1

This study investigated the verbal/spatial working memory impairments and the relationship between working memory and neuropsychological functions in patients with schizophrenia. 20 schizophrenic patients and 20 normal controls participated. The verbal working memory and spatial working memory were measured by digit-span test and spatial span test, respectively. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test(WCST), Trail Making Test(TMT), Controlled Oral Word Association(COWA) and Korean-California Verbal Learning Test(K-CVLT) were administered to evaluate the neuropsychological functions. The schizophrenic patients showed impaired performances on spatial-span test but not on digit-span test, which indicate that schizophrenic patients have spatial working memory deficit but preserved verbal working memory. The schizophrenic patients showed impairments of such neuropsychological functions as attention, problem-solving and verbal memory. In schizophrenic patients, the verbal working memory has significant correlations with response time of TMT and COWA letter, while spatial working memory has a relationship with perseverant responses of WCST. These results indicate that schizophrenic patients have an impairment of spatial working memory, which seems to be related to prefrontal dysfunction

작업기억(Working Memory) 확장을 위한 유아 복합 드로잉 교육 프로그램 개발 연구

장지현,이신동 한국전시산업융합연구원 2019 한국과학예술융합학회 Vol.37 No.5

Based on the educational potential of infant drawing, this study was conducted with the aim of developing an infant drawing education program using infant working memory, along with a theoretical explanation of the relationship between infant drawing activities and working memory. To this end, the concept of working memory and the structure of the schema were summarized and the concept of M-capacity and the structure of the working memory was presented, and the drawing program of the visual infant drawing based on the drawing map system was evaluated through the secondary system. The result shows that the drawing of classes through teaching methods that stimulate working memory is significantly more complicated and sophisticated than previous drawing. Through this process, it can be assessed that the drawing process through WM has a positive effect on the overall working memory of infants as well as on the drawing results of infants. This study clarifies the working process of working memory in theoretical terms and applies it through practical training programs. The results of drawing can be expected to improve through the expansion of the size of M-capacity, which is affected by the maintenance, expansion, integration of working memory, the process of observation, perception, coding and the transition of mental resources to long-term memory, and can be attempted through the process of suppression, modification and supplementation of executive functions. Ultimately, the expansion of the size of the M-capacity can be achieved through active activity of the working function along with the expansion of the number of utilized schemas, where infant drawing can be an effective activity. 본 연구는 유아 드로잉(drawing)의 인지과정 기반 으로 유아 드로잉 활동과 작업기억의 관계에 대한 이 론적 규명 및 유아 작업기억을 활용한 유아 드로잉 교육 프로그램의 개발을 목적으로 실시된 연구이다. 작업기억의 개념과 작업기억의 작용에 있어 M-용량 과 스키마의 구조성에 대하여 개념을 정리한다. 드로 잉 지도체제에 대한 24차시 작업기억 역할을 바탕으 로한 유아 드로잉 프로그램을 구성하고 교수방법을 제시하였다. 2차시 프로그램을 통해 작업기억역할을 활용한 유아 드로잉 효과를 평가하여 보았다. 그 결과 작업기억을 자극하는 교수 방법 드로잉수 업은 사전 드로잉활동에 작품의 결과가 복잡해지고 정교화된 것을 알 수 있다. 작업기억을 활용한 드로 잉 수업은 유아의 드로잉표현의 향상 및 유아 작업 기억 전반에 긍정적 영향을 미치고 있다는 평가할 수 있다. 본 연구는 유아 드로잉인지과정에서 작업기억의 작 용 과정을 명확히 하고 이를 실제 교육 프로그램을 통해 적용해 보는 것이다. 드로잉의 결과는 M-용량의 크기의 확장을 통해 향상을 기대할 수 있으며 이는 작업기억의 유지, 조작, 통합을 위해 관찰, 지각, 부호 화의 과정과 정신자원의 장기기억으로의 전환 등에 의해 영향을 받는다. 작업기억의 집행기능의 억제, 수 정, 보완의 과정을 통해 향상을 시도할 수 있다. 유아 드로잉 인지 과정에서 스키마 수의 최대치를 동시에 활성화 하면서 작업기억의 M-용량의 크기를 확장시 킨다. 유아 드로잉은 작업기억의 용량을 확장 시키는 효과적인 활동이 될 수 있을 것이다.

작업기억과 학습의 관계: 장애(위험군) 학생을 대상으로 한 작업기억 연구 분석

김우리,고은영 한국학습장애학회 2015 학습장애연구 Vol.12 No.1

This study reviewed the research investigating the relationship between working memory and the academic achievement of students with disabilities or at-risk for learning disabilities (LD); it also provided implications for sensitive identification and effective interventions for the students based on the results. A total of 24 studies were reviewed. The results showed that the participants in most studies had reading disabilities or were at-risk for LD. The most frequently targeted academic area was also reading. Second, in reading, working memory was significantly correlated with reading comprehension and it predicted the achievement of reading comprehension of students with disabilities. Also, reading comprehension was highly correlated with central executive and phonological loop, but the correlation between comprehension and visuospatial sketchpad was inconsistent across studies. Third, in math, working memory was significantly correlated with number sense skills, and the correlation between auditory working memory and number sense was higher than visual-spatial working memory. In writing, working memory was significantly correlated with composition, but the correlation was not high. There was no correlation between working memory and writing fluency. Fourth, in language, working memory was significantly correlated with story-telling. Fifth, assessment tools to measure working memory were inconsistent across studies. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. 본 연구는 국내 장애(위험군) 학생들의 작업기억과 학업성취도와의 관계를 살펴본 연구들을 개괄 및 분석하여, 장애(위험군) 학생의 학습능력 진단과 중재 프로그램 개발 방향에 대한 시사점을 제공하고자 하였다. 총 24편의 논문이 분석되었으며, 연구동향 및 교과별 분석 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 대부분의 연구들이 읽기장애 및 위험군 학생을 대상으로 하였으며, 학습영역 또한 읽기교과를 대상으로 한 연구가 가장 많았다. 둘째, 작업기억과 읽기와의 관계에서는 작업기억은 읽기이해와 유의미한 상관이 있으며 읽기이해의 유의미한 예측변인으로 나타났다. 또한, 대체로 읽기이해는 중앙집행기, 음운루프와 높은 상관이 있었으나, 시공간잡기장과의 관계는 연구마다 상반된 결과를 보였다. 셋째, 수학에서는 작업기억은 수 관련 기술과 유의미한 상관을 보였고, 작업기억 중에서도 음성관련 작업기억과 상관이 높았다. 쓰기에서는 작업기억은 작문과 유의미한 상관이 있었으나 상관이 높지 않았고, 작업기억과 쓰기유창성은 유의미한 상관을 보이지 않았다. 넷째, 언어의 경우, 작업기억은 이야기산출능력과 유의미한 상관이 있었고, 언어문제를 동반한 ADHD의 경우 더 높은 상관을 보였다. 다섯째, 연구에서 사용된 작업기억 검사도구는 일관되지 않았으며, 종류 및 형태에 차이가 있었다. 끝으로, 이러한 연구결과를 중심으로 한 논의와 함께 후속연구에 대한 방향을 제안하였다.

작업기억과 단기기억의 요구수준이 언어수행력에 미치는 효과

유재연(Jae Yeon Yoo),임경열(Kyoung Yuel Lim) 한국언어치료학회 2015 言語治療硏究 Vol.24 No.2

Purpose: Working memory to evaluate mental resources consists of executive attention, short-term memory, and processing. This study aimed at investigating the relationship between working memory and short-term memory. In particular, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of working memory and the level of short-term memory in language performance. Methods: Sixty young normal adults participated in this study. They completed a backward digit span as a working memory test and a computerized token test as a language performance test that had two levels of short-term memory. The subjects were divided into two groups (high and low) by their digit span score; the language performance scores and efficiency score from the computerized token test were compared between the high and low working memory groups. Results: The language performance scores and efficiency score of the group with high working memory were significantly higher than that of the low working memory group in three token conditions. However, there were no differences between the two groups in language performance score and efficiency score in two token sentences. Conclusions: The study suggests that short-term memory is also an important component of working memory that can burden mental resources while people process language with their own mental resources in a state of low burden. That is, short-term memory may also consume mental resources that are the restricted fuel for mental processing of human beings. Future studies need to investigated the relationship among the three components of working memory: executive attention, short-term memory, and processing.

시공간 작업기억의 분리에 관한 고찰

이한규 인제대학교 2010 仁濟論叢 Vol.25 No.1

Since Baddeley and Hit ch proposed a model of working memory which is composed of central executive, phonological loop , and visuospatial sketchpad, we have expanded the knowledge about the working memory. The visuospatial sketchpad has gathered less attention than the other two components. However, recent explosion of research about brain has helped the understanding of visuospatial working memory. This study reviewed the recent research about visuospatial working memory to examine if further dissociation of visuospatial working memory is possible. A lot of research about patients with brain damage has provided the evidences that visual working memory and spatial working memory may be processed separately. This dissociation, however, is not to be understood in terms of hardwired(or structural) separation in brain, because there is a good reason to believe that cognitive process is performed in the way of parallel distributed processing. The neuropsychological research of visuospatial working memory has also contributed to test the theoretical model of working memory and to investigate the nature of working memory in general. Further research is necessary to examine the development of working memory in terms of general cognitive development.

작업기억용량의 개인차에 따른 광고 노출 시 주의제어와 광고텍스트 언어기억 분석

이은주(Eun Ju Lee),황은영(Eun Young Hwang),양승은(Seung Eun Yang),최명원(Myung Won Choi) 한국마케팅학회 2012 마케팅연구 Vol.27 No.4

개인이 가진 작업기억용량(working memory capacity)의 차이가 주의제어 및 광고독해시간, 그리고 광고텍스트 언어기억의 양과 질을 결정하는 것을 조사하였다. 작업기억(working memory)은 소비자의 인지활동에 필요한 정보를 단기간 동안 저장, 처리할 수 있게 하는 인지적 자원으로 제품관여도가 동일하게 높은 두 소비자이더라도 같은 광고자극물을 보고 난 후 광고텍스트에 대한 기억은 그 양과 질에 있어 차이가 존재할 수 있는데, 이는 광고텍스트를 읽을 때 주의제어능력에 상당부분 기인한다고 볼 수 있다. 본 연구에서는 시선추적기를 사용하여 광고 노출 시 소비자들의 주의를 측정하고 광고노출 사후기억을 측정하였다. 작업기억용량이 높은 개인들은 광고 노출 시 정보를 수용하는 과정에서 광고의 다양한 요소들 가운데 광고텍스트에 더 오랫동안 시간을 보내며 읽는다. 이들의 시선은 어지럽고 산만하게 흐트러지지 않고 필요한 부분들에서 시선이 순차적으로 머무는 양상을 보이기 때문에 전체적인 시선궤적은 작업기억용량이 낮은 이들보다 짧은 편이다. 작업기억용량이 큰 소비자들은 광고텍스트 기억언어의 어휘가 풍부하고 표현에 있어서도 수사적으로 좀 더 복잡한 2어절 이상의 수식구문을 사용할 수 있으나, 작업기억 용량이 작은 소비자들은 단어절의 단편적인 기억을 나열하되 전체적인 어휘량도 적고, 의미 요소들간의 관계를 표현하는 수식구문의 사용도 적다. 또한 기억된 단어들 중 추상적 이미지를 표현하는 제품 퍼스낼리티 같은 단어들은 작업기억용량이 높은 소비자들에게서 더 강하게 나타나는 현상이며, 색상 같은 구체적인 어휘의 기억은 작업기억용량이 높고 낮은 소비자간에 차이가 없었다. Working memory is a critical element in high-order cognition including information search, text comprehension, and ad memory. Individuals vary widely in the working memory capacity. The current research investigated how individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) influence attentional control and ad text memory. Individual differences in WMC are measured reliably by an established neuropsychological measurement of K-CVLT (Korean California Verbal Learning Test). Based on the working memory capacity theory, it is predicted that individual differences in working memory capacity will exercise differential effects on attentional control and ad text reading time. Moreover, ad texts can represent various levels of word comprehension difficulty. For example, color-related words represent concrete images and are relatively easy to process. On the other hand, brand personality-related words represent abstract concepts and are relatively hard to process. Thus, brand personality-related words require greater working memory resources to process than do color- related words. Drawing on the current linguistic literature, it is hypothesized individuals high in WMC will also show better ad text memory in terms of total vocabularies and number of words used per memory item than will individuals low in WMC. Due to the difference in demands for cognitive resources between processing concrete and abstract words, it is hypothesized that individuals high in WMC will better remember abstract personality-related words than individuals low in WMC. However, there will be no difference between those high in WMC and those low in WMC in remembering easy color-related words that represent concrete images. We used an eye-tracker device Tobii T60 to measure consumer attentional control during advertisement exposure using eye travel distance as a measure of attention disperson. The advertisement stimulus included an image of a model, three pictures of camera, and ad text which was composed of a total of 77 words including both color-related words and brand personality-related words. A total of 126 students participated in the experiment and we selected a subset of participants who scored top 75 to 100 percentile and bottom 25 percentile on the K-CVLT. We found that individuals high in WMC spent longer time reading the ad text than did their counterparts (Mhigh=28.17secvs. Mlow=21.17sec, t=-2.718, p=0.009). Individuals high in WMC also showed shorter eye travel distance during the first 7 seconds of ad exposure (Mhigh=16139.897pixel vs. Mlow=20022.190 pixel, t=2.065, p=0.019). Shorter eye travel distance of those high in WMC suggests that they exercised greater control of attention for the ad text reading and comprehension. Individuals high in WMC also showed a greater number of total vocabulary use (Mhigh=12.97 vs. Mlow=9.70, t=-2.551, p=0.013) and more frequent use of two- or three-word adjective phrases in ad text memory than their counterparts (Mhigh=4.96vs. Mlow=3.36, t=-2.915, p=0.005). The number of color-related words remembered by the low WMC individuals was not significantly different from that of the high WMC individuals (Mhigh=1.00 vs. Mlow=1.17, t=0.972, p=0.335). However, the abstract words used to express product personality were retained better in the high WMC individuals` ad text memory(Mhigh=1.06 vs. Mlow=0.36, t=-3.139, p=0.003) than in their counterparts` memory. Based on these findings, managerial implications are developed. Marketers and advertising copy writers should pay attention to target consumers` working memory capacity and adjust the level (e.g., abstract or concrete) and number of words used in advertisement text by considering consumers` limited working memory resources.

실어증 환자의 단기기억 및 작업기억용량과 실어증 중증도 및 문장처리와의 상관

성지은(Jee Eun Sung) 한국언어청각임상학회 2010 Communication Sciences and Disorders Vol.15 No.3

배경 및 목적: 실어증 환자들의 단기기억(short-term memory) 및 작업기억용량(working memory capacity)의 개인차에 따른 실어증 중증도 및 문장처리능력 차이에 관한 연구가 주목을 받고 있다. 하지만, 정상인을 대상으로 개발된 산출을 기반으로 하는 기억기제 평가방법을 실어증 환자들에게 직접적으로 적용하는 데는 다양한 문제가 제기될 수 있다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 기존에 사용되던 단기 및 작업기억과제(Martin, Kohen & Kalinyak-Fliszar, 2008)를 지시하기폭과제(pointing span task)로 변형한 후, 숫자 및 단어로 자극 양상을 조절하여 과제별 수행력 차이를 살펴보았으며, 기억과제들과 실어증 중증도 및 문장처리 능력에 관한 상관관계를 분석하였다. 방법: 대상자는 영어를 모국어로 사용하는 실어증 환자 20명과 정상 노인 30명이다. 단기기억과제로는 숫자 및 단어 바로 따라지시하기 과제가 사용되었으며, 작업기억과제로는 숫자 및 단어 거꾸로 따라지시하기 과제를 사용하였다. 실어증 중증도는 Porch Index of Communicative Ability(PICA)를 통해 평가되었으며, 문장처리능력은 Computerized Revised Token Test(CRTT)를 사용하여 살펴보았다. 결과: 두 집단 모두 단기기억과제에 비해 작업기억과제에서 더 낮은 수행력을 보였으며, 숫자에 비해 단어에서 더 어려움을 보였다. 두 집단 간의 차이가 가장 크게 나타나는 과제는 숫자 거꾸로 따라지시하기 과제였다. 주성분 분석 결과에 따르면, 네 가지 기억과제는 하나의 공통적인 성분으로 추출될 수 있으며, 총분산의 80% 가량을 설명하는 것으로 나타났다. 논의 및 결론: 네 가지 기억과제의 공통적인 기제를 개념화하자면, 짧은 시간동안 정보를 저장하거나 조작하는 데 기여하는 인지적 기제라고 할 수 있다. 네 가지 기억과제 중, 실어증 중증도와 실어증 환자의 문장처리 수행력을 유의하게 예측한 변수는 숫자 바로 따라지시하기 과제였다. 작업기억용량이론에 바탕을 둔 결과 해석이 논의되었으며 한국어를 사용하는 실어증 환자를 위한 작업기억과제 개발에 대한 필요성도 제기되었다. Background & Objectives: Short-term memory and working memory capacities have gained considerable attention as underlying cognitive mechanisms, which may account for language processing difficulties in people with aphasia. However, there are limitations to the employment of short-term and working memory tasks for assessing normal cognitive processing in order to evaluate language-impaired clinical populations. The current study investigated 1) the performance differences between people with aphasia and normal elderly adults in short-term memory and working memory tasks when the stimuli modality was manipulated using digits and words and 2) how their performances on the memory tasks were related to aphasia severity and sentence processing. Methods: Twenty people with aphasia and 30 normal elderly adults participated in the present study. Digit forward and word forward span tasks served as short-term memory tasks, and digit backward and word backward span tasks served as working memory tasks. Porch Index of Communicative Ability (PICA) was used as a measure of language impairment severity, and the Computerized Revised Token Test (CRTT) was a measure of sentence processing. Results: Both groups showed greater difficulties in working memory tasks than short-term memory tasks and those involving words compared to those involving digits. The greatest group differences were found in the digit backward span task. Principal component analysis of four span tasks revealed that a one-factor solution accounted for approximately 80% of the total variance in both groups, indicating that the four span measures served as a unified index of the underlying memory-related cognitive mechanism that is responsible for maintaining and manipulating information. Among the four span measures, the digit forward task significantly predicted aphasia severity and sentence-processing abilities in people with aphasia. Discussion & Conclusion: Results were partially consistent with the working memory capacity theory. Korean versions of short-term and/or working memory span tasks need to be developed in order to investigate the underlying cognitive mechanisms responsible for language impairments in aphasia. (Korean Journal of Communication Disorders 2010;15;285-297)

The Effect of Content Familiarity on Memory-Based Attention Allocation

이현규,김민식 한국인지및생물심리학회 2009 한국심리학회지 인지 및 생물 Vol.21 No.2

Studies of attention and working memory address that working memory contents guide attention to the memory-matching object in the scene. The present study investigated whether familiarity of working memory contents modulates the memory-based attention allocation. We measured the attention allocation by comparing response times (RT) for memory-matching or non-matching probes while maintaining either novel or familiar object in working memory. When a novel object was maintained in working memory, probe RTs at the memory-match object were significantly faster than those on non-match object (Experiment 1). However, when participants maintained a familiar or highly learned object in working memory, there was no probe RT advantage for the memory-match object (Experiments 2, 3, and 4). These results demonstrate that working memory does not automatically bias attention towards the memory-matching item; instead, the bias was present only for novel working memory contents. Thus, the guidance of attention by working memory contents could be due to a top-down strategy where participants re-sample the memory item in the visual array in order to reduce the cognitive complexity of working memory maintenance.

작업기억과 언어발달장애: 문헌연구

김수진,김정연,이혜란,Kim Soo-Jin,Kim Jung-Yeon,Lee Hye-Ran 대한음성학회 2004 말소리 Vol.51 No.-

Working memory is the term used to refer to the mental workplace in which information can be temporarily stored and manipulated during complex everyday activities such as understanding language. The studies on language and working memory are based on Baddeley's phonological working memory and Daneman and Carpenter's functional working memory. This article reviews two working memory models and the studies on language and working memory based on each model. These are described in the implication of working memory in language development and specific language impairment-evaluation and treatment.