이제현의 현실 인식 및 외교 논리 검토 -『익재난고』의 「사찬」과 상서(上書)를 중심으로-

한누리 한국중세사학회 2022 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.68

The figure examined here is Yi Je-hyeon(李齊賢, 1287~1367), who was a renowned scholar and a governmental official from the 14th century. Many of his accomplishments are known to have been rooted in his Neo-Confucian expertise, but the focus of this article is to examine his view of the world as a politician and a diplomat. He was, as his colleagues also were, forced in a situation where he must be aware of the international order and Goryeo’s position in it, while not forgetting his own identity as a traditional Goryeo citizen. Understanding that dilemma is the primary objective of this work. In his letters to the Yuan Imperial government, Yi Je-hyeon always emphasized the fact that Goryeo and Yuan had enjoyed a long and close relationship. He did so to daringly urge Yuan to be aware of how Yuan as an Empire was supposed to treat Goryeo, a much smaller entity on the Korean peninsula. But he was also careful not to offend Yuan unnecessarily, and that shows in his treatment of past Goryeo records. He downsized and toned down certain remarks left by his ancestors, who believed in Goryeo’s own regional-centric nature. At the same time, Yi Je-hyeon also not hesitated to make some radical demands to Yuan, as shown in his communiques to the Imperial court. In order to make sure Yuan would grant Goryeo’s requests and allow Goryeo traditions remain intact, he not only cited past Emperor Qubilai’s ‘Old promises,’ with which the late Emperor expressed his will not to alter Goryeo’s past conventions, but employed other political notions as well. For example, he quoted the legacy of former Mongol leaders who preceded Qubilai, and even recalled the traditional Chinese way (from the Dang period) of regulating Northeast Asian regions (“Gimi”), to persuade Yuan authorities. Yi Je-hyeon’s efforts to respond to situations developing on the international stage, and to protect Goryeo traditions, interests and agendas, reveal the complicated nature of the position Goryeo was put in at the time, and Yi’s dilemma to navigate through it. Hopefully by further exploring Yi Je-hyeon’s mind, we would gain understanding of how things were for the Goryeo people in the 13th and 14th centuries. 본 논문은 고려후기의 대표적인 관료이자 문인이었던 이제현(李齊賢, 1287~1367)의 현실인식과 외교논리를 살펴보는 것을 목표로 한다. 이제현의 여러 업적은 그의 성리학적 면모를 반영하는 것으로 평가되지만, 본 논문에서는 현실정치인이자 외교관으로서 그의 인식을 규명하는 데 초점을 맞추었다. 이를 통해 당시 원제국 중심의 국제질서 및 고려의 위치를 인지하되 고려의 정체성도 잊지 말아야 했던 지식인의 고뇌가 현실 및 외교 현장에 어떻게 반영되었는지 이해할 수 있을 것이다. 이제현은 양국의 관계가 시간에 흐름에 따라 돈독해져 갔음을 강조하는 가운데, 특히 그가 제후국 고려의 입장에서 고려의 이전 역사 기술들을 인용하며 일부 표현을 조정하는 모습이 포착된다. 이는 일종의 ‘자기검열’로써 천자-제후의 수직적 관계를 인정 및 유지하는 한편으로 그를 넘어서는 위협에 빌미를 제공하지 않으려는 현실적인 조치라 할 수 있다. 반면 이제현은 고려의 요구사항 관철 및 토속 보전 등을 위해 매우 과감한 외교 논리를 설파하기도 했는데, 기존의 ‘세조구제론’ 인용에 그치지 않고 한반도에 대한 중국의 전통적 ‘기미지배’ 방식을 환기하거나 몽골 선황제들의 유훈을 언급하는 등 쿠빌라이를 넘어서는 권위까지 호출·소환했음이 흥미롭다. 국제 정세에 기민하게 반응하고 그 속에서 고려의 입지를 보장, 국속을 보전하려는 이제현의 노력은 13~14세기 특수상황에서 빚어진 고려인들의 중층적이고도 양가적인 인식을 대변한다고 할 수 있다. 이렇듯 이제현을 비롯해 고려후기 인물들을 검토하는 것은 당대인들의 인식 일반에 더욱 접근할 수 있는 계기를 제공할 것이다.

Another Look at the Portrait of Yi Je-hyeon, a Gift of King Chungseon

지민경 한국학중앙연구원 한국학중앙연구원 2024 Korea Journal Vol.64 No.2

King Chungseon of Goryeo, the grandson of a Yuan emperor, commissioned from renowned 14th-century Chinese artist Chen Jianru a portrait of Yi Jehyeon, a prominent Goryeo scholar-official. Despite the portrait’s fame as a rare Yuan work and evidence of the Goryeo-Yuan relationship, its purpose remains a mystery. This study aims to explore how the Portrait of Yi Je-hyeon was a personal gift of King Chungseon, but also served the subtler purpose of strengthening the king’s political position by connecting Yi with southern literati through the cultural act of painting appreciation. Firstly, this study demonstrates works of art such as paintings and poems were one way for southern literati to reinforce their sense of solidarity and commonality. Secondly, this study seeks to argue the people involved in the creation and appreciation of the portrait, as well as its compositional elements and motifs, suggest that it was a means to establish Yi Je-hyeon’s legitimacy within orthodox southern literati circles. Ultimately, this study argues King Chungseon, who sought to form a power base in the Yuan court with the support of southern literati, attempted to establish and strengthen connections between these factions and certain members of the Goryeo elite, including Yi Je-hyeon.

고려후기 이제현의 정치사상 연구

김민우 역사학회 2019 역사학보 Vol.0 No.244

Yi Je-hyeon designed the orthodoxy to promote the dynasty’s legitimacy and prevent the usurpations. This orthodoxy sets the mandate of heaven and the public mind as the standard, and prohibited usurpations. It was based on the consciousness of ruling classes since its early period, while accepting the view of Yuan scholars. And he regarded ancient China monarchs as ideal and emphasized their virtues. However, it did not fully accept the opinions of Yuan scholars or neo-Confucianism. Also he presented virtues of the king which inherited the perception of the Confucian since the early Goryeo. Meanwhile he insisted on the neo-Confucian self-cultivation of the king, but still presented traditional method. Next he insisted that the bureaucrat should serve their king with loyalty. Also he argued that a premier should support politics, but it did not mean that premier should lead the whole politics. He’s fundamental idea of king and bureaucrat relationship is that of early Goryeo. He also affirmed scholar who had classical learning and maintained moral conduct as bureaucrats’ virtue. However without that virtue, they could be highly evaluated if they were perform their bureaucracy faithfully according to their own talents. His political thought was based on the conventional thought in Goryeo, and accepted neo-Confucian ideologies, selectively. 본고는 이제현의 정치사상에 내재된 성리학적 요소를 강조하여 평가해온 종래의 연구를 보완하고, 그의 정치사상에 존재하는 다양한 요소를 종합적으로 검토하여 그 역사적 의미를 살펴보고자 하였다. 이제현은 왕조의 정통성을 고취하고 찬탈을 방지하고자 정통론을 고안하였다. 그의 정통론은 천명과 인심을 기준으로 하고 찬탈을 금하는 내용으로 구성되었다. 이는 고려지배층의 전통적인 관념을 바탕으로 원 성리학자의 견해를 충돌 없이 수용한 것이었다. 또한 이제현은 이제삼왕을 통해 성리학이 긍정하는 군주의 덕목을 표출하였다. 그러나 이러한 인식이 원 성리학자의 견해를 전적으로 수용하거나 철저하게 성리학에 입각한 것은 아니었다. 또한 그가 제시한 국왕의 덕목은 고려전기 유학자들의 인식을 계승한 것이었다. 나아가 성리학적 군주수신론을 제기하는 동시에 고려전기적 군주수신론도 여전히 존중하고 있었다. 다음으로 그는 신료는 충성으로 군주를 보좌해야 한다고 보았다. 또한 군주가 어린 나이로 즉위하면 재상이 보좌할 수 있다고 하였는데, 다만 이것이 재상이 정치를 주도해야 한다는 것은 아니었다. 그에게는 군주와 신료가 함께 통치해야 한다는 고려전기의 군신관념이 본질적인 것이었다. 나아가 그는 경명행수지사를 긍정하였지만, 그 외에도 각자의 재능에 따라 직분에 충실하면 높게 평가하였다. 이러한 이제현의 정치사상은 원 간섭기의 현실 속에서 왕조의 존속과 정상적인 정사 시행을 바랐던 그의 고민이 담긴 것이었고, 고려전기 이래의 정치이념을 바탕으로 필요에 따라 성리학의 요소를 선택적으로 수용한 것이었다.

이제현(李齊賢)의 성리학적 역사관과 전통문화인식

최봉준 ( Bong Jun Choi ) 한국사상사학회 2008 韓國思想史學 Vol.0 No.31

고려-몽골 관계 깊이 보기 - 「乞比色目表」와 「請同色目表」 -

이명미 한국역사교육학회 2020 역사교육연구 Vol.- No.37

Yi Je hyeon and An Chuk's writing ‘Treat Goryeo as Saekmok(乞比色目表/請同色目表)’ can be utilized for class as a deep study material on the part of “Reform of the King Gongmin(恭愍王)” in the textbook “Korean History” for high school. Using these materials, we can deeply understand the Goryeo Mongol relationship and the power structure of Goryeo based on it, and look at the perceptions of the Goryeo kings and their subjects on it. This has two main meanings in terms of history education. 1st. Regarding the criteria for writing “History” (2015 revision) of middle school that avoids “differential structure” in the descriptions of international relations, we can understand the Goryeo Mongol relationship and the political situation at that time beyond the dichotomous structure of “intervention and resistance.” 2nd. This helps to understand the two important issues of the Korean history curriculum in relation to the history of the late Goryeo Dynasty. In other words, it is a question of how the unprecedentedly active exchange of culture, which enabled the introduction of Neo Confucianism amid the conflict between Won's interference in internal affairs, took place. As shown in this document, Goryeo officials raised questions about the problem with the Mongol empire denying the identity of Goryeo and demanded correction. In addition, as also shown in the two documents, they were fully aware of the power structure of Goryeo, where the Mongol emperor's power was at its peak and power was given through the relationship with him, and utilized it in their respective situations. The same was true of the Goryeo kings. In other words, the Goryeo people valued the identity of the unit, but did not deny the existence and authority of Mongolia, which existed at the top. The Mongol empire's exercise of political influence on Goryeo and active human exchanges between the two countries are understandable in this structure and awareness. 1340년경에 이제현과 안축이 지은 「乞比色目表」와 「請同色目表」는 고려 몽골 관계 및 그와 연동된 고려의 권력구조를 깊이 있게 이해하고 그에 대한 고려국왕 및 신료들의 인식을 살펴보는 데에 도움을 준다. 고등학교 『한국사』 교과서의 고려후기 관련 단원 내 ‘공민왕의 개혁’에 대한 내용 부분에서 이 자료들을 심화학습자료로 활용할 수 있다. 두 자료를 통한 심화학습은 역사교육의 측면에서 볼 때 크게 두 가지 의미를 갖는다. 첫째, 국제관계사 서술에서 ‘이분법적 구도’를 지양하는 중학교 『역사』 집필기준(2015 개정)에 부합하여, 고려 몽골 관계 및 당시의 정치적 상황을 ‘간섭과 저항’이라는 이분법적 구도에서 벗어나서 이해할 수 있도록 한다. 둘째, 고려후기의 역사상과 관련하여 한국사 교육과정이 중요하게 다루고 있는 두 가지 문제를 계기적으로 이해하는 것을 도울 수 있다. 즉 원의 고려 내정 간섭이 이루어지는 갈등적 관계 속에서 성리학의 도입을 가능하게 했던 고려 원 간 활발한 문물의 교류는 어떻게 이루어졌던 것인가의 문제이다. 「걸비색목표」와 「청동색목표」에서 보이듯, 고려의 신료들은 몽골과의 관계가 고려의 정체성 혹은 국체를 부정하는 문제에 대해서는 문제를 제기하며 시정을 요구하였다. 그러나 역시 두 사료에서 보이듯, 이 시기 고려의 신료들은 몽골황제권이 정점이 되고 그와의 관계를 통해서 권력이 부여되는 고려의 권력구조에 대해서는 충분히 인지하고 각자의 상황에서 이를 활용하였다. 이는 고려국왕의 경우도 마찬가지였다. 즉 당시 고려인들은 고려라는 단위의 정체성을 중요시하면서도 그 상위에 존재하는 원, 몽골의 존재와 권위 역시 부정하지 않았던 것이다. 원 간섭기 원의 고려에 대한 정치적 영향력 행사와 양국 간의 활발한 인적 교류는 이러한 구조와 인식 속에서 이해할 수 있다.

고려시대 감무(監務)의 운영과 그 특징 - 임명 사례의 분석을 중심으로 -

최은규(崔?奎) 한국역사연구회 2020 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.118

The dispatching of Gammu officers to local regions during the reign of Goryeo King Yejong has been understood as a supplementary measure taken to complement the Goryeo dynasty’s local administrative structure, as at the time not all local Gun and Hyeon units received officials from the central. It was a unique aspect of Goryeo local administration, and has attracted interests of many researchers. According to prior studies, King Yejong utilized such Gammu officers in stabilizing the refugee population and launching the Jurchen campaign. Then his successor King Injong, after going through the insurrection of Yi Ja-gyeom and Myocheong, tried to utilize them in his efforts of restoring stability in local regions which was crucial for active local governance. Later, the Military regime used them to protect their own power, while the Neo-Confucian scholars in subsequent days wanted to build a strong central ruling authority with those Gammu officers. We can see Gammu was an integral part in Goryeo local ruling, so it was only natural that the reason their number gradually increased over the years, and what kind of results entailed, have been the constant topic of previous historiography. And it is the theme of this article as well. The Gammu post was bestowed to officials who just entered the government either by successfully applying for the civil official examination or with birth merits acquired through their ancestors’ service. People were assigned to such post as their first ever governmental assignment. Yet, after the Military regime increased the number of Gammu officers their status also deteriorated. During the period when Goryeo was enduring political interference from the Mongol Yuan empire, people who were either to be demoted, or became a governmental official at a fairly old age, or was from a local region and only became an official by a recommendation, served as Gammu officers. At the end of the Goryeo dynasty, the Neo-Confucian scholars found that unacceptable, and tried to declare only scholar/officials, who entered the government through the civil exam, were eligible for the Gammu officer seat.