초기 고려-명 관계에서 사행로 문제: 요동 경유 사행로의 개통 과정

구범진,정동훈 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2021 한국문화 Vol.- No.96

It is widely known that envoys going to Beijing during the Joseon dynasty traveled along the land route via Liaodong: They crossed the Yalu River to reach Liaoyang, and then went through the Shanhai Pass to arrive in the capital of Ming and Qing empires. Then what kind of travel route did the envoys take during the period when the capital of Ming was Nanjing, not Beijing? In the early years of Goryeo-Ming relations, envoys who visited the other country’s capital had no choice but to take the Yellow Sea route crossing the open sea at the risk of shipwreck. In the mid-1370s when the Ming troops were advancing into the Liaodong region, however, Goryeo envoys were granted permission, after many twists and turns, to take the alternative Liaodong-Shandong route, which was far more safer than the Yellow Sea route: They were allowed to cross the Yalu River to reach Liaoyang by land, set sail from the Liaodong peninsula to the Shandong peninsula, and then traveled to Nanjing by land. In this paper, we analyze the relevant sources in great detail to track how and why the change in the travel route of envoys occurred. It was Ming Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang’s ‘speech of denunciation’ that first triggered the twists and turns that, in the end, led to the change in travel routes. In this speech the emperor, suspecting that Goryeo was attempting military espionage activities in the Liaodong region, forbade Goryeo envoys from traveling along the Liaodong-Shandong route, and demanded that Goryeo greatly reduce the frequency and scale of the dispatch of envoys. However, ambiguous and even contradictory words in the emperor’s speech led the Goryeo court to misinterpret his intentions when the speech was actually delivered in the summer of 1373. The Goryeo court mistakenly thought that the emperor demanded envoys be sent to Liaodong by land, not by sea. This misunderstanding led Goryeo envoys to undergo many troubles including a fatal shipwreck as they tried to alternately take the Liaodong-Shandong and the Yellow Sea routes. In June 1374, when Goryeo envoys managed to arrive in Nanjing via the Yellow Sea route in their fourth attempt of travel to the Ming capital, the emperor finally accepted Goryeo’s request and designated the Liaodong-Shandong route as the official travel route for envoys. Goryeo preferred taking the Liaodong-Sandong route as it was far safer than the Yellow Sea route. While permitting Goryeo to use this route, the Ming emperor ensured that Ming could closely control and monitor Goryeo envoys all the way from Liaodong to Nanjing. He could deny their entry into Liaodong whenever deemed necessary. Therefore, the change of travel routes for envoys from the Yellow Sea to the Liaodong-Shandong required that Goryeo envoys be under strict control and surveillance by the Ming authority although it ensured their travel safety and on-time arrival. .

몽골제국의 동방 경영과 요동 고려인 세력

오기승 중앙대학교 중앙사학연구소 2016 중앙사론 Vol.0 No.43

After mid 13th century, Mongol empire tried to restrain three eastern ulus for centralization of empire. And Goryeo people group in liaodong was organized for it. In the beginning, empire gathered wandering people from Goryeo and they added to territory of Goryeo people group in liaodong. It means eastern ulus can get more less people than former time. And it was one of a method can restrain growth of eastern ulus. After growth of Goryeo people group in liaodong, empire divided it two groups. one group controlled by Hong clan. their place was Liaoyang area. And the other one controlled by Wang clan. their place was Shenyang area. And they disturbed each other. Two clans and their groups was honored by their military service and victory in Nayan rebellion. They attacked force of eastern ulus resolutely in that rebellion and proved their value. After that rebellion, leaders of two clans served as high position in Liaoyang province. Especially leaders of hong clan, served as high position generation after generation. And GunSang, one of leaders in Hong clan, was served as top postion in Liaoyang province. In this period, Goryeo people group in liaodong had powerful territory in liaodong, and they was one of pillars in liaodong area. And a important part of Mongol's reign in their eastern territory. But power of Goryeo people group in liaodong was decayed in Early 14th century. Külüg Khan(Emperor Wuzong of Yuan) was installed King of Shenyang in liaodong. It restrained both eastern ulus and Goryeo people group in liaodong, and divided and took some territory of Hong clan. After this period, power of Goryeo people group in liaodong declined more because defeat in The two capitals war. Hong and Wang clan was controlled Goryeo people group until at least mid 14th century. But they lost leadership in liaodong area and became substructure of Liaoyang province. In sum, Goryeo people group in liaodong and their power were important parts of Mongol's reign in their eastern territory. Political, military, each different means.

고대 중국 正史에서의 예맥

권오중(Kwon Ojung) 동북아역사재단 2015 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.49

古代 한반도 중부 이북에 살았던 주민의 대개가 濊貊일 것이라는 점에 대해선 많은 학자들이 동의하고 있다. 예맥의 분포는 한반도뿐만이 아니라 만주에까지 미친다. 고대 漢 王朝는 만주의 중남부 지역에 요동군을 설치하였다. 요동군은 황제의 직할 통치를 위한 행정단위였는데, 그 주민의 상당수는 예맥이었다. 요동군에 편입된 예맥, 즉 ‘요동예맥’은 郡民으로 재편되었을 터인데, 이 글은 이들 요동예맥의 자취를 추적하고자 하였다. 요동예맥 가운데 요동 북부에서 생활하였던 예맥은 군현 체제에서도 부족의 정체성을 어느 정도 유지할 수 있었다. 첫째는 前漢 왕조가 실시한 部都尉 제도(Sub-Commandery System) 때문이었다. 이 제도는 원주민이 지녀온 종족의 관습과 기율을 유지시키는 제도로서, 이로 인해 요동예맥의 자율성은 어느 정도 보장될 수 있었다. 둘째는 부도위제와 관련하여 원주민이 유지해 온 집단의 생활방식으로, 이로 인해 요동예맥은 부족의 집단행동을 펼칠 수 있었다. 후한에 이르러 부도위가 폐지되었지만 요동예맥의 존재는 확인이 가능하다. 정사의 東夷傳에서는 이들에 관해 관심을 기울이지 않았지만, 『後漢書』安帝紀 등을 보면 요동예맥의 군사행동을 확인할 수 있다. 요동예맥은 고구려나 鮮卑 등과 연합하여 요동군이나 현도군을 공격하였다. 3세기의 요동예맥은 요동에 등장한 공손씨세력에 복종하였지만, 공손씨세력이 약회된 이후엔 오히려 中原王朝의 편을 들어 공손씨를 공격하는 데 협력하기도 하였다. It is commonly accepted by many scholars that almost all of the people who lived in the northern area of the central Korean Peninsula in the ancient period were Yemaek Tribe. The dispersion of the Yemaek Tribe extended to Manchuria. The Han dynasty established Liaodong Commandery in the south -central region of Manchuria. The Commandery was an administration unit for direct rule by emperors, and the Yemaek constituted a large populaton. As Liaodong-Yemaek, the Yemaek tribe incorporated into the Liaodong Commandery, and they should have been reorganized as Commandery residents. This paper searches for traces of the Liaodong-Yemaek. Yemaek Tribe, which lived in the northern Liaodong among the Liaodong-Yemaek, could maintained their own tribal identity under the Commandery system. First, this became possible due to Sub - Commandery system introduced by the Western Han dynasty. This system upheld the tribal customs and discipline of the native population, thus the autonomy of Liaodong -Yemaek could be guaranteed to a certain degree. Second, this became possible due to the collective lifestyle sustained by the native population regarding the Sub -Commandery system. That is why they took part in tribal - collective actions. Aithough the Sub-Commandery was abolished in the Eastern Han dynasty, it is possible to verify the existence of Liaodong Commandery. While “Records on Eastern Barbarians(東夷傳)” of the authentic history didn’t pay attention to Liaodong-Yemaek, the “Account of Emperor An” in History of the Later Han(後漢書) described military activities of the Liaodong-Yemaek. The Liaodong-Yemaek attacked the Liaodong Commandery or the Xuantu Commandery forming the united front with Koguryo and the Xianbei. Although the Liaodong -Yemaek was subjugated to the Gongsun’s Family in the third century, they collaborated with the Central Plain Dynasties and helped to attack the Gongsung’s family.

『사기』로 본 고대의 요동

최원태,정암 바른역사학술원 2023 역사와융합 Vol.- No.15

The location of the Liaodong (遼東) in ancient China was different from that of today. The Liaodong at the time was a major indicator of the western boundary of Old Joseon (古朝鮮), the first Korean nation. According to literature including Sagi (史記), Liaodong in ancient was a place name first used to point to the Far East of China. However, over time, it has also apply to name of the administrative district and princely states in China. Example of the former both includes Liadong-gun (遼東郡), an administrative district established after the Yan (燕) defeated Dongho (東胡) and Old Joseon, built their Great Wall, and is Liaodong-gun, an administrative district established during the Qin (秦) and Western Han (西漢) period. Example of the latter was Liaodong-guk (遼東國), an princely states established by dividing the land of the former Yan in the early Han Dynasty. The Liaodong before invasion Dongho and Old Joseon by Jingae (秦蓋) (approximately BC 300) seem to have pointed to outside the eastern border of the Yan, that is, the area between the Chisu (治水) River (currently Yeongjeongha 永定河) and the Gosu 沽水) River (currently Jobaekha 潮白河). After the invasion of Jingae, it went beyond the region and pointed to the east part of Yusu (濡水) River (currently Nanha 灤河). The Liaodong-gun which was established during the Jingae period, the Liaodong-gun which was established during the Qin Dynasty, and Liaodong-guk which was established during the Western Han were geographically overlapped on the same region. Therefore, we argue that the Liaodong from the ancient Yan to the Western Han period was a region limited to the east part of the lower stream of Yusu (濡水) River (currently Nanha 灤河).

16~17세기 여진의 성장과 요동 변경지대 성격 연구 - 변경지대의 변화를 통해 본 만리장성 동단기점설 비판 -

남의현 동북아역사재단 2011 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.34

This study aims at illuminating the fabrication of the Amnok (鴨綠)River being the eastern point of the Great Wall in the light of the dynamic development of Jurchens in the sixteenth century. The background, meaning, and intention of the extension of the eastern part to the Amnok River shall be examined. A critical change was in progress in the international relations in the century. While Japan tried to take dominance in East Asia through the Imjin War, Ming still took a pride as the superpower in East Asia,reinforcing close relations with Chosun. However, a significant change in the sixteenth century was also witnessed in Jurchen areas as Jurchens attempted to become involved in new international affairs by absorbing large Manchurian tribes. However, the sixteenth century situation has not been the focal point because it has been blocked by a Chinesecentered historical view which includes the Amnok River hypothesis of the Great Wall. Why is it important to examine the Chinese position academically through the sixteenth century Jurchens? Is it justifiable or necessary?The reason for China to extend the eastern point down to the Amnok River was to preoccupy Manchurian history beyond a view of ‘expanding river area’, to keep stability in the midst of Northeast Asia’s political environment surrounding Manchuria which has already been revealed in the “Northeast Project,” and to counter North Korea. Accordingly, it might be said that the current historical situation in China to solve contemporary and future problems that they face might be an actual pivot in the background. When Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋) founded the Ming dynasty in 1368,had to withdraw to the Mongol area. When the Yuan government lost dominancy, Ming progressed into Liaodong and established the Liaodong Regional Military Commission (遼東都司) and succeeded in occupying a part of Liaodong. They intended to spread out to Mongolia and Heilongjiang (黑龍江). However, after Emperor Yongle’s in 1424, death (1403~1424) as no more active foreign policy was available, they changed their strategy to defend Liaodong through the Liaodong Regional Military Commission the which was leading to founding a solid Liaodong defense line in the middle and late Ming dynasty. Soon, became a military organization in the far eastern area to defend Liaodong in the beginning of the fifteenth century. Although there was some time to seek expansion during Yongle’s reign, they had a defensive role in general in the relation with northern territory tribes. Along with this background, the Liaodong defense line was moved back and they began to establish an outpost at the Amnok River. China today has nearly completed a theory that the eastern point of the Great Wall was the Amnok River, allegedly arguing that the Liaodong defense line was part of the Great Wall. This results from falsely assuming that some outposts created by Ming were part of the Great Wall. This in turn logically generates a frame that Ming had a solid reign over Liaodong. This reflects the current intention of China to remove any possible future conflicts with nearby countries over the riverside domain and Manchuria. Whether the eastern point of the Great Wall can be the Amnok River is especially important for determining the Ming dynasty’s sovereignty and territorial coverage. When China started the Northeastern Project,river territory in Ming became an important topic of study, and the book A Study on Northeastern Area in Ming dynasty (Jilin People Press,2008) was a typical work published in 2008 as a result of research to date. This book also argues that the Manchuria area during the Ming dynasty belonged to Ming. However, as this study shows, the Amnok River cannot be the starting point in the east. The Amnok River met the border with Joseon,Ming, and the Jurchens, who were struggling for power. Furthermore,what Ming constructed in the river area of the River huge wall, but a small outpost. Tha... 본 연구는 16~17세기 여진사회의 역동적인 변화과정을 통해 만리장성의 동단기점이 압록강이라는 중국의 주장을 비판해 보고자 한 논문이다. 16세기의 동아시아 국제관계는 매우 긴박하게 돌아가고 있었다. 일본은 임진왜란을 통해 동아시아를 제패하려고 하였으며, 명나라는 여전히 동아시아의 강국임을 자부하며 몽골과 여진을 경계하면서 조선과 밀접한 관계를 강화시켜 나가고자 하였다. 그러나 16세기 후반기로 접어들면서 일본 이외에 여진지역에서 중요한 변화가 일어나고 있었다. 여진족이 부족을 점차 통합해 나가며 명의 遼東邊墻을 위협하면서 새로운 강자로 부상하고 있었다. 이러한 16세기 여진의 성장은 여진사의 복원을 뛰어넘어 16~17세기 동아시아 국제질서를 새롭게 조명할 수 있는 단서를 제공하고 있다는데 큰 의미가 있다. 현재 중국은 만리장성 동단기점을 압록강이라고 주장하고 명대 만주 지역에 산재하던 대부분의 여진족이 명의 기미위소로 살아갔다고 주장한다. 이는 곧 여진지역이 명의 강역이었다는 주장으로 연결된다. 그러나 16세기 여진사회의 역동적인 성장 모습과 이들에 대한 명나라 변경정책의 실상을 살펴본 결과 명나라는 수세적 변경정책을 취하였으며 압록강 변에 만리장성과 같은 연결된 벽돌성을 축조한 적이 없었다. 장성의 기본 개념은 ‘일선으로 연결된 성벽’을 의미한다. 중국은 명대 요동을 방어하기위해 설치한 요동변장을 확대해석하여 만리장성으로 주장하며, 그 마지막 지점인 호산산성에 산해관과 같은 벽돌장성을 산등성이를 따라 일선으로 축조하였고 만리장성의 동단기점이라고 주장하고 있다. 그러나 연구결과 동단기점으로 알려진 호산산성은 명대 강연대보가 있던 자리였으며 이것은 명나라가 여진방어를 위해 압록강 유역의 고구려 성을 활용한 고립된 석성이자 여진을 방어하기 위한 전초기지에 불과함을 알 수 있었다. 이러한 전초기지를 중국이 만리장성으로 둔갑시킨 결과가 현재의 호산산성이며 이를 통해 전체적으로 명대 요동지배가 매우 견고하고 명의 강역이 매우 넓었다는 이론적 틀을 만들어 나가고 있다. 90년대 이후 중국이 만리장성의 동단기점을 압록강유역으로 확장시킨 배경에는 '강역의 확장'이라는 단순한 관점을 넘어 근세 만주 역사에 대한 선점, 변경의 안정 , 북한에 대한 대응, 경제 개발 등과 같이 현실과 미래에 닥칠 다양한 문제를 복합적으로 풀어나가고자 하는 현실적 목적이 있었음을 알 수 있었다.

고조선과 燕나라의 전쟁과 요동

조원진(Cho, Won-Chin) 한국고대학회 2020 先史와 古代 Vol.- No.62

본고는 고조선과 전국 燕나라의 전쟁 양상을 살펴보며 진번의 실체와 요동의 범위 문제에 주목하였다. 고조선은 기원전 323년경 전국 燕나라와 대립하였다. 당시 고조선은 요동지역에 위치하였던 것으로 이해된다. 고조선은 안정된 왕권을 바탕으로 칭왕을 하며 요서지역과 광범위한 연맹을 형성하여 燕나라와 대립한 것으로 보인다. 고조선과 燕나라는 팽팽한 대립속에서도 큰 전쟁은 일어나지 않았다. 그러나 고조선은 수십년 후 소왕대 전성기를 맞이한 燕나라에 패하여 滿潘汗을 경계로 삼게 되었다. 『史記』 에는 전쟁의 주체에 대해 조선과 함께 진번의 존재가 부각되어 있다. 당시 요동북부에 위치한 진번은 조선 연맹에 있어 중요한 역할을 담당하였다고 이해된다. 燕나라의 세력이 최종적으로 미친 동단에 대해 『史記』는 眞番朝鮮지역으로 『魏略』 은 滿潘汗으로 기록하였다. 燕나라가 설치한 5군 중 고조선과 관련된 것은 『山海經』 의 貊國이 있었던 요서군, 『史記』의 진번 조선이 있었던 요동군에 해당된다. 燕나라의 침공 이후 고조선은 천산산맥을 경계로 삼았으며, 요동지역에서 대동강유역으로 중심지를 옮긴 것으로 보인다. 열수 패수 같은 조선과 관련된 지명이 요동지역과 서북한지역에 동시에 보이는 것은 고조선의 중심지 이동의 흔적으로 이해된다. 燕나라의 북벌 직후 요동군의 범위는 의무려산에서 천산산맥 사이로 볼 수 있다. 그러나 燕나라 시기에는 속현이나 광범위한 행정구역을 설치하지는 못했다고 이해된다. 연북장성은 의무려산까지 이르렀으며, 의무려산~패수(혼하)에는 장새가 설치된 것으로 보인다. 소왕 이후 국력이 약해진 燕나라는 원거리 군현을 유지하기 어려웠으며 말기에는 패수 서쪽에 설치한 장새까지만 세력이 미쳤다. 나중에 燕나라가 秦나라의 공격으로 쫓겨간 요동도 이 범위에서 벗어나지 못했다고 이해된다. 이후 요동군은 秦나라에 의해 비로소 체계적으로 설치되었다. This study focused on the truth of Jinbeon and the range of Liaodong by examining the war patterns between Old Joseon and Yan(燕). Old Joseon came up against Yan around 323 B.C. during the Age of Civil Wars. It is understood that Old Joseon was located in the Liaodong area at that time. It is believed that Old Joseon used the title of king, formed a broad federation(또는 alliance) in the Liaodong region based on a stable kingship, and came up against Yan in response to the invasion of Yan. Despite the tense confrontation between Old Joseon and Yan, there was no big war. However, decades later, Old Joseon was defeated by Yan, at its prime time under the reign of King Zhao, and Manfanhan(滿潘汗) became the border between the two countries. “Shiji(史記)” highlights the existence of Jinbeon along with Old Joseon, while describing as the main agents of the war. Jinbeon, located in the west of Liaodong at the time, is understood to have played an important role in the Joseon Federation. At that time, Yan extended to the west region of Liaodong. It is believed that “Shiji” recorded the east border of Yan as Jinbeon and “Weilue(魏略)” described it as Manfanhan. Among five commanderies installed by Yan, Old Joseon was related with Liaoxi commandery where Moguo(貊國) in “Shanhaijing” existed and Liaodong commandery where Jinbeon in “Shiji” was located. After Yan s invasion, Old Joseon bordered the Tian Shan Mountains and it is believed that it moved its center from the Liaodong region to Pyongyang region. It is understood that names of places related to Old Joseon such as Yeolsu and Paesu existed in the Liaodong region and the northwestern region of the Korean Peninsula at the same time because they are the traces of the movement of the center of Old Joseon. In terms of the range of Liaodong commandery, it is confirmed that 18 prefectures were installed between Yiwulu Mountain and Yalu River centered by Liao-yang after the collapse of Wiman Joseon. However, it is believed that Yan could not install a local prefecture or extensive administrative district. Extensibility reached Yiwulu Mountain. It is also believed that Jangsae was installed between Yiwulu Mountain and Hun River. Yan became weaker after King Zhao and it was difficult for Yan to protect Liao-yang, on the plain. Therefore, the influence of Yan, in fact, reached only to the Jangsae installed in the west of Hun River. It is believed that the Liaodong where Yan was driven off by Qin’s attack was within this range. It was not until the Qin time that local prefectures were installed in the Liaodong region by Chinese power and the force of Chinese power was expanded to the east of Hun River.

요동 공손씨정권의 대방군 설치와 그 의미

권오중 ( O Jung Kwon ) 대구사학회 2011 대구사학 Vol.105 No.-

Daifang commandery was established to make up for the collapsed Lolang Commandery. This administrative machinery began to sink from the middle of the second century and Daifang Commandery was established in the early part of the third century. Whereas the Commandery system was originally to be established by the Central Government of the Empire, Daifang Commandery was sets up by Gongsun Kang who maintained a separatist regime in Liaodong. The Gongsun regime remained in power from Gongsun Duo who is father of Kang to Gongsun Yuan for three generations. The Gongsun regime, therefore, deserved to be called the Liaodong Kingdom. The reason why the Later Han Dynasty couldn``t deal with the issue of Lolang Commandery in time and the Liaodong Kingdom could appear was its decline of power. The Liaodong Kingdom separated from China at that time. The Chinese had a concept of ``overseas region(海外)`` whose counterparts were the Chinese territories. When the Gongsun Family rose up in Liaodong, it was considered not as the Chinese territories but as ``Overseas region`` which also included Goguryeo, Buyeo, and the ``Three Han Tribes``. The Liaodong Kingdom was definitely stood out among overseas countries, and Daifang Commandery was established under these circumstances. Daifang Commandery controlled Han(韓) Tribes and the Japanese. The counterpart of their early subjugation was not the Chinese Empire but the Liaodong Kingdom. Dongye(東濊), Okjeo(沃沮), Goguryo(高句麗), and Buyeo(夫餘), which were controlled by Lolang Commandery and Xuantu Commandery, were under the same situations. The Liaodong Kingdom lasted for fifty years and the tribute of the Eastern Barbarian Dynasties was paid not to the China Empire but to the Liaodong Kingdom until it was defeated by the Wei Dynasty in 238. The Liaodong Kingdom was the suzerain state of East Asia, including Manchuria, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan. Thereby, Daifang Commandery played an important role in these circumstances.

Koreans` Perception of the Liaodong Region During the Chosŏn Dynasty

Lee Jungshin(이정신) 고려대학교 한국사연구소 2016 International Journal of Korean History Vol.21 No.1

요동은 지금의 遼寧省 동남부 일대를 말한다. 이 곳은 삼국시대 고구려 영역이었고 고구려가 멸망한 이후에는 발해의 영역이었다. 그러나 발해가 거란에 의해 멸망되면서, 요동은 중국에 넘어가게 되었다. 이후 원나라가 들어서고 충선왕이 심왕으로 임명되면서 요동을 회복하려는 움직임이 일어나기 시작했다. 고려왕조를 이어 들어선 조선의 태조 역시 요동확보 의지를 드러내었다. 조선은 여진을 제압하다면 명의 다음 단계는 바로 국경선을 접하게 될 조선임을 우려하지 않을 수 없었다. 이를 방지하기 위해서는 여진을 조선편으로 끌어들이고 선제공격하여 요동지역을 조선이 차지하는 것이었다. 만약 그렇게 된다면 서북쪽에는 몽골이 있고 그 아래 남쪽에는 명이, 그리고 조선이라는 삼각구도가 형성될 수 있을 것이다. 이같은 생각에서 정도전은 태조 이성계와 손을 잡고 요동정벌을 계획하였으나 이방원의 쿠데타로 실패하였다. 태종대에 이르러서 명은 여진세력을 통제하기 위해 건주위를 설치했다. 이에 세종은 여진족의 분란을 틈타 6진과 4군을 설치하여 압록강과 두만강 이남의 영역은 조선의 것으로 고착화 시켰다. 또한 이전 시대의 역사지리 기록을 모두 압록강 이남에 존재했던 것으로 기재하여 압록강 이남만은 명의 침략으로부터 지키고자 했다. 이같은 사실이 기록된 것이『세종실록지리지』와『동국여지승람』그리고『고려사』이다. 史書에서 우리 역사를 압록강 이내로 고착화시킴으로서 요동에 대한 조선인의 생각이나 정벌의지는 점점 약화될 수 밖에 없었다. Liaodong refers to the southeastern part of Liaoning Province today. During the Three Kingdoms Era, this area was part of Koguryŏ territory, and after the collapse of Koguryŏ, it belonged to Parhae. However, when Parhae fell at the hands of the Jurchens, the Koryŏ dynasty was unable to secure Liaodong. Afterwards, with the rise of the Chinese Yuan dynasty, King Ch’ungsŏn of Koryŏ was appointed by the Yuan emperor as the King of Shenyang, and the movement to reclaim Liaodong began to gain momentum in Korea. Succeeding Koryŏ, the Chosŏn dynasty claimed to support Ming China under the principle of sadae, but this did not mean that relations between Chosŏn and Ming were stabilized. As a result, Chosŏn could not but worry about the fact that if the Ming were to suppress the Jurchens, Chosŏn would be Ming’s next target. To prevent a Ming invasion of Korea, Chosŏn had to make an ally of the Jurchens and launch a preemptive attack to annex Liaodong. With this in mind, Chŏng Tojŏn joined hands with T’aejo Yi Sŏnggye and planned to conquer Liaodong but failed due to Yi Pangwŏn’s coup. During the reign of T’aejong, Ming established Jianzhou Guard in Liaodong to control the Jurchens. While the Jurchens were embroiled in a dispute, King Sejong also established four districts and six garrisons and, he changed the geographical records from the previous dynasties and kingdoms to appear as if they had existed in the land south of the Amnok River in an attempt to protect the regions south of Amnok from the Ming invasion. This was recorded in Sejong sillok chiriji, Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam, and Koryŏsa.

Koreans’ Perception of the Liaodong Region During the Chosŏn Dynasty - Focus on Sejong sillok chiriji (Geographical Treatise in the Annals of King Sejong) and Tongguk yŏji sŭnglam (Augmented survey of the geography of Korea) -

이정신 고려대학교 한국사연구소 2016 International Journal of Korean History Vol.21 No.1

Liaodong refers to the southeastern part of Liaoning Province today. During the Three Kingdoms Era, this area was part of Koguryŏ territory, and after the collapse of Koguryŏ, it belonged to Parhae. However, when Parhae fell at the hands of the Jurchens, the Koryŏ dynasty was unable to secure Liaodong. Afterwards, with the rise of the Chinese Yuan dynasty, King Ch’ungsŏn of Koryŏ was appointed by the Yuan emperor as the King of Shenyang, and the movement to reclaim Liaodong began to gain momentum in Korea. Succeeding Koryŏ, the Chosŏn dynasty claimed to support Ming China under the principle of sadae, but this did not mean that relations between Chosŏn and Ming were stabilized. As a result, Chosŏn could not but worry about the fact that if the Ming were to suppress the Jurchens, Chosŏn would be Ming’s next target. To prevent a Ming invasion of Korea, Chosŏn had to make an ally of the Jurchens and launch a preemptive attack to annex Liaodong. With this in mind, Chŏng Tojŏn joined hands with T’aejo Yi Sŏnggye and planned to conquer Liaodong but failed due to Yi Pangwŏn’s coup. During the reign of T’aejong, Ming established Jianzhou Guard in Liaodong to control the Jurchens. While the Jurchens were embroiled in a dispute, King Sejong also established four districts and six garrisons and, he changed the geographical records from the previous dynasties and kingdoms to appear as if they had existed 84 Koreans’ Perception of the Liaodong Region During the Chosŏn Dynasty in the land south of the Amnok River in an attempt to protect the regions south of Amnok from the Ming invasion. This was recorded in Sejong sillok chiriji, Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam, and Koryŏsa.

요동 고려인 洪氏 세력의 형성과 洪君祥의 행적에 대한 고찰

오기승 부경역사연구소 2017 지역과 역사 Vol.- No.40

The Mongol empire united Liaodong Goryeo People, focused on who is an influential figure in surrendered utilized Goryeo People. And utilized them in ruling tactics of their eastern territory. In such Liaodong Goryeo People group, first united group was the Hong clan. Their leader Hong Bok-Won got power in north border area of Goryeo by support of invaded Mongol force and Goryeo’s connivance. But Goryeo attacked him, and he moved to Liaodong. Hong Gun-Sang is fifth son of Hong Bok-Won. He was the most unusual man in four key figures of Liaodong Hong clan(Hong Bok-Won, Hong Cha-Gu, Hong Gun-Sang, Hong Zung-Hee). Other three are concentrated upon as a regional power. On the other hand, Gun-Sang concentrated upon serve as a high-ranking officer of central of The Mongol empire. He served as Siwichingun(royal guard) officer, and high-ranking officer of Chumilwon(headquarter of imperial military force) and Chungseosung(headquarter of imperial administration) He was in contrast with other three of Liaodong Hong clan in relationship with Goryeo Dynasty. Other three was hostile to the Goryeo Dynasty. On the other hand, Gun-Sang maintained a good relationship with the Goryeo Dynasty in showing goodwill. But it was not expression of loyalty to Goryeo. Just goodwill to his home area as imperial officer who has ancestor in Goryeo Dynasty. It is also possible that he was in charge of friendly action to Goryeo Dynasty because he was originally a suitable person in charge of friendly action. Above all, other three key figures of Liaodong Hong clan were hereditary rulers of regional power. And they were forced to compete with Goryeo Dynasty because their territory was abuted with Goryeo and base of ruling were Goryeo people. On the other hand, Gun-Sang was not entangled with benefit of specific area. And he can cognize Goryeo Dynasty as position that seeing entire empire because he served long time as a high-ranking officer of central of The Mongol empire. It was a main factor of that he can keep tolerant stance to the Goryeo Dynasty. 몽골제국은 내투한 고려인 중 유력한 인물을 중심으로 요동 지역 고려인들을 세력화시켜 제국 동방 경영에 활용하였다. 이러한 요동 고려인 세력들 중 가장 먼저 형성된 것은 홍씨 가문 세력이었다. 그 수장 洪福源은 침입해온 몽골군에 기대어 고려의 묵인 하에 고려 북계 내에서 세력을 얻었다가 고려 본국의 공격을 받아 요동으로 이전하였다. 洪君祥은 홍복원의 5男으로, 『元史』에 열전을 가진 요동 홍씨 세력의 주요인물 홍복원, 홍차구, 홍군상, 홍중희 4인 중 가장 이채를 띠는 인물이다. 다른 3인이 지역 세력가로서의 성격이 강한 반면 홍군상은 侍衛親軍을 거쳐 樞密院과 中書省의 고위직을 역임하는 등 제국 중앙 인사로서의 성격이 강하게 나타나고 있다. 고려 본국과의 관계에서도 그는 일족의 다른 인물들과 대비된다. 상기 4인 중 다른 3인은 고려 본국과 적대했던 반면, 홍군상은 우호나 선의로 비칠 수 있는 행적을 보이며 양호한 관계를 유지하였다. 다만 이는 고려에 대한 忠의 발로가 아니라, 제국의 고려계 관료로서 本鄕 지역에 보인 선의로 해석해야 할 것이다. 또한 본래 유화책 담당에 적합한 인사였기에 고려에 대한 우호역을 맡았을 가능성도 있다. 무엇보다 다른 3인은 세습 지역 세력가로서 고려 본국과 세력권이 인접했으며 똑같이 고려인이 그 세력기반이었기에 자연히 고려 본국과 경쟁하며 알력을 빚게 되었던 반면, 중앙에서의 경력이 길었던 홍군상은 특정 연고 지역만이 아니라 제국 전체를 조망하는 입장에서 고려 본국을 바라볼 수 있었다. 이는 그가 고려 본국에 대해 유연한 태도를 유지할 수 있었던 주요 요인이라 할 수 있다.