A FORMATIVE MEASURE OF VERY YOUNG CHILDREN’S PERSUASION KNOWLEDGE

Shasha Wang,Dick Mizerski,Fang Liu,Doina Olaru,Victoria Mallinckrodt 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2016 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2016 No.7

Introduction An individual’s Persuasion Knowledge is his or her knowledge of the persuasive nature of messages (Freisted and Wright 1994). Most adults are assumed to have this knowledge that enables them to be sceptical of persuasive messages, and to incorporate this information in their decision-making about promoted products. Children are viewed as vulnerable to persuasive messages (Nelson 2016) because they have not developed the appropriate knowledge base to be sceptical of messages (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007) and thus unable to discount the claims made by marketers. This lack of ability to be sceptical is argued to lead to “…the vulnerability of young audiences to the negative effects of advertising” (Nelson 2016, p. 169) like obesity, materialism, poor quality of life and higher rates of mortality. Because of the wide acceptance that young children are particularly vulnerable to persuasive messages, advertising targeting children has been banned in several countries and proposed for others (Mizerski et al. 2016; Wang 2016). Many studies about Persuasion Knowledge or Advertising Knowledge (communication research) have been published over the 40 plus years since Ward (1972) first discussed the concept. However, few studies have tested whether Persuasion Knowledge is an antecedent to children’s sceptical responses to persuasive messages. The 11 studies that have tested the link (see Mizerski et al. (2016) for a review) used a wide variety of single item or reflective measures (measures that reflect the construct). They provide inconsistent findings except that the child’s age is positively associated with acquiring knowledge about persuasive messages like advertising or playing advergames. For example, while most researchers assumed or argued a positive link between young children’s persuasion knowledge and their scepticism, Buijzen (2007) and Christenson (1982) failed to find this link. Robertson and Rossiter (1974) reported children’s understanding of persuasive intent (commercials persuade one to buy things) was positively related with young children’s scepticism, but assistive intent (commercials tell one about things) was negatively related. The inconsistent findings of children’s responses to commercial messages may be due to more than the lack of consistent measures. The use of reflective rather than formative measure of young children’s persuasion knowledge may be another reason for inconsistent findings. “Young” children are those under eight years old (Mizerski 1) shashaatperth@gmail.com et al. 2016), but a lack of sufficient persuasion knowledge has been found with children over 16 years old (Carter et al. 2011). Most recent studies have adopted the Freisted and Wright (1994) Persuasion Knowledge Model that is based on the information processing of an adult buyer. Adults tend to have obtained Persuasion Knowledge so their knowledge may be captured with measures that reflect the construct. Young children are in the process of obtaining Persuasion Knowledge. The ability to understand the source of the message and the persuasive intent of the source are often cited as antecedents to having Persuasion Knowledge. These constructs form over time and cause persuasion knowledge (Nelson 2016). Therefore, it should be a formative measure. Measuring social class is a classical formative measure because causal elements like where you live and your profession can’t be accurately calculated for children. Social class forms over time. The use of a reflective measure when a formative measure should be used leads to several problems (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw 2006; Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001), particularly an increase in Type II errors-“false negatives” (MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Jarvis 2005). For example, this means ruling out a causal element of persuasion knowledge when it is causal. This paper will compare existing single item or multi-item reflective measures used with young children, with a formative measure of the Persuasive Knowledge construct. The best way to validate a construct is to test it with external variables empirically and theoretically linked to the construct, including both antecedents and consequences (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001). Three variables, theoretically and/or empirically linked with young children’s Persuasion Knowledge, are tested in a baseline model to assess the external validity of the construct. These variables are age (Ward 1972), responses toward persuasive marketing messages (such as scepticism) and affect toward the persuasive messages (Mizerski et al. 2016; Wang 2016). Therefore, it is expected that the goodness-of-fit measures for the model using the formative measure of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge will provide a better fit to the data than the reflective measures. To further test the formative nature of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge, two additional models are tested. Researchers are responsible to set the weights of indicators of a formative construct, so a formative model with expert knowledge weights is developed (Figure 1). The indicators or elements of a formative construct should be able to reveal different facets so another model with different facets is developed. Consistent findings of the two models and the proposed baseline model will further support the formative nature of this construct. Apart from content validity and external validity, we also test the measures of the construct with another data set (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007) to test the models’ generalisability. The Mallinckrodt and Mizerski study used children from a different cultural background (Australian vs. Chinese young children), but have similar ages and measures of Persuasion Knowledge and external variables. Further confirmation of the structure of the measurement model is provided if the same relationships are found with the second data set. Methodology Sample The population to be sampled are young Chinese children. China was selected because it has the largest population of young children, is the largest market for toys and a children’s toy is the stimulus product in the experimental study. The sample frame is day care schools in a Northern Chinese city of approximately eight million people. Procedure This is an experiment-based study with a control group. After individual exposure to a toy TV advertisement for a “magic ruler” that can be made into many different shapes with a Dinosaur shape shown in the ad, participants were each asked to answer questions. Cartoon pictures of the question options accompanied by verbal statements were used to reduce the possibility of misunderstanding young children’s responses on Persuasion Knowledge related questions. To reduce any effects of young children choosing the first option they see, pictures or options were shown in a random order. Children were told that there is no right or wrong answer, and they could withdraw at any point. Measures Persuasion knowledge was measured three ways; including a single-item measure, a summated-items measure, and a formative measure. Through an analysis and coding of 20 studies that tested the effect of young children’s persuasion knowledge (Mizerski et al. 2016), six items were found to measure the Persuasion Knowledge construct. The single-item measure used is the children’s understanding of the advertisers’ intention to make them ask their parents to buy (parent-buying intent). This was treated as the most important aspect of persuasion knowledge by several researchers (Carter et al. 2011; Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007). A summated-items measure included six items, frequently used in prior scholarly work. The formative measurement model was built using the same six items but by changing the direction of influence, with the causal flow from measures to the construct. Other variables include the children’s scepticism, their belief of false claims made in the ad and affect toward the toy TV advertisement (see Figure). After a CFA analysis with five questions, the scepticism factor score was derived as a standardised measure that followed a normal distribution. Scepticism ranged from -0.59 to 1.35, with an average of 0.07 and SD of 0.68. Belief of false claims (named as “false beliefs”) shown in the TV advertisement indicated that most children did not believe the two false claims included in the ad (84% and 69% respectively). Affect towards the toy TV ad was measured using one question: “Do you like this video?” to which most children (88%) indicated yes. Results, Discussion And Implication Fifty-four different patterns or combinations of the six persuasion knowledge items were found. This pattern show substantial heterogeneity in children’s Persuasion Knowledge, and further illustrates that young children are accumulating or forming their Persuasion Knowledge (Friestad and Wright 1994). In addition, these items have low correlations to one another that are typical of a formative measure. These findings of variability of knowledge levels and weak association between them indicate the potential multiple-dimension, formative nature of the construct of persuasion knowledge for young children. This may apply specifically to young children who are at the stage of increasing their learning abilities and developing or forming their knowledge. No relationship was found in the structural models using the reflective single-item measure and summated-items measure of persuasion knowledge, and the models showed a poor fit. However, relationships were found in the structural model that applied the formative measure of persuasion knowledge, with good model fit (see Table 1). Because a formative measure is supported, we tested the formative nature of Persuasion Knowledge on a previous study’s data (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007). A formative model using that study’s data showed the same relationships between Persuasion Knowledge and its external variables. This consistency supports a formative measure of young children’s persuasion knowledge. Any review of future or past research should note the possible impact of using reflective measures of young children’s Persuasive Knowledge. To generalise the findings more research needs to be done for different product categories and age groups. More product categories, such as food and movies, and age groups could be taken into consideration. While few studies have tested the association of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge to scepticism toward the message, even fewer have tested the link of scepticism to young children’s responses to the advertised product (e.g. like, prefer, choose). Most of these studies do not find a link. If having Persuasion Knowledge doesn’t influence a young child’s desire for the brand, why teach it (e.g. Nelson 2016) or ban advertising because the children don’t have Persuasion Knowledge? Perhaps using a formative measure the link will be found.

Does Information Systems Research Need Formative Measurement?

Gimun Kim,Tassoo Moon 한국인터넷전자상거래학회 2014 인터넷전자상거래연구 Vol.14 No.5

There is a common mistake in psychological and behavioral journals leading to serious questions concerning the research validity in structured equation model(SEM). Petter et al.(2007), published in the MIS Quarterly, pointed out the problem of measurement model misspecification among existing IS studies. Especially, it was argued that formative constructs have been mistaken for reflective constructs and they proposed guidelines to specify formative constructs and to safeguard their construct validity. Although we agree that Petter et al.(2007)`s work is beneficial to researchers who take advantage of SEM for empirical research, it also raises a fundamental question on whether IS research based on formative measurement should be encouraged. This question is especially relevant as reflective measurement has been available as a more credible alternative and formative measures can be converted to reflective ones. Our work aims to offer a corrective direction over Petter et al.(2007) suggestion in undertaking research based on SEM. For this, we first compare reflective measurement and formative measurement in terms of the relationship between constructs and measures. Then, we offer our views on adequate approaches that should contribute in forming the convergent(rather than divergent) flow of research efforts. Given the frequent usage of SEM by IS scholars, we brought up an imperative methodology issue that needs a closer look by both authors and reviewers.

Does Information Systems Research Need Formative Measurement

김기문,문태수 한국인터넷전자상거래학회 2014 인터넷전자상거래연구 Vol.14 No.5

There is a common mistake in psychological and behavioral journals leading to serious questions concerning the research validity in structured equation model(SEM). Petter et al.(2007), published in the MIS Quarterly, pointed out the problem of measurement model misspecification among existing IS studies. Especially, it was argued that formative constructs have been mistaken for reflective constructs and they proposed guidelines to specify formative constructs and to safeguard their construct validity. Although we agree that Petter et al.(2007)'s work is beneficial to researchers who take advantage of SEM for empirical research, it also raises a fundamental question on whether IS research based on formative measurement should be encouraged. This question is especially relevant as reflective measurement has been available as a more credible alternative and formative measures can be converted to reflective ones. Our work aims to offer a corrective direction over Petter et al.(2007) suggestion in undertaking research based on SEM. For this, we first compare reflective measurement and formative measurement in terms of the relationship between constructs and measures. Then, we offer our views on adequate approaches that should contribute in forming the convergent(rather than divergent) flow of research efforts. Given the frequent usage of SEM by IS scholars, we brought up an imperative methodology issue that needs a closer look by both authors and reviewers.

Laser-based Relative Navigation Using GPS Measurements for Spacecraft Formation Flying

이광원,오형직,박한얼,박상영,박찬덕 한국우주과학회 2015 Journal of Astronomy and Space Sciences Vol.32 No.4

This study presents a precise relative navigation algorithm using both laser and Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements in real time. The measurement model of the navigation algorithm between two spacecraft is comprised of relative distances measured by laser instruments and single differences of GPS pseudo-range measurements in spherical coordinates. Based on the measurement model, the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is applied to smooth the pseudo-range measurements and to obtain the relative navigation solution. While the navigation algorithm using only laser measurements might become inaccurate because of the limited accuracy of spacecraft attitude estimation when the distance between spacecraft is rather large, the proposed approach is able to provide an accurate solution even in such cases by employing the smoothed GPS pseudo-range measurements. Numerical simulations demonstrate that the errors of the proposed algorithm are reduced by more than about 12% compared to those of an algorithm using only laser measurements, as the accuracy of angular measurements is greater than 0.001° at relative distances greater than 30 km.

Does Information Systems Research Need Formative Measurement?

Gimun Kim,Bongsik Shin,Varun Grover 한국경영정보학회 2008 한국경영정보학회 학술대회논문집 Vol.2008 No.-

영상 센서를 이용한 편대 비행 선도기의 3차원 위치 측정

김정호,허진우,신정국,이대우,조겸래,허기봉 한국항공우주학회 2012 한국항공우주학회 학술발표회 논문집 Vol.2012 No.11

최근 무인 항공기를 이용하여 탐색 및 정찰을 수행하는 경우와 같이 편대 비행을 통한 무인 항공기의 효율적인 임무 수행의 필요성이 대두되고 있다. 편대 비행을 수행하기 위해서는 상호 위치를 인지할 수 있어야 하며, 적진에 침투하는 경우와 같이 통신이 불가능한 경우 편대 비행이 이루어질 수 없으므로, 영상 센서를 이용하여 선도기의 상대 위치를 측정할 수 있어야 한다. 따라서 본 논문은 영상 센서를 이용하여 비행 중인 경비행기의 상대 위치를 측정하는 실험을 수행하였으며, 소형 무인항공기에 비해 크기가 큰 경비행기와 상사성을 맞추기 위하여 3㎞ 전방의 위치에서부터 접근하고 있는 경우에 대한 실험을 수행하였다. 성능의 정확한 평가를 위하여 GPS를 이용하여 상대 거리 및 상대 위치를 계산하였으며, 영상 센서를 이용하여 측정한 상대 위치를 실시간으로 계산할 수 있도록 하였다. In these days, a need for reconnaissance mission using some UAVs is increased and formation flight capability is more required. To perform a formation flight, a relative position of each aircraft is required, but sometimes it can’t be got using the wireless communication during the reconnaissance in the enemy airspace, thus the relative position of a leader should get using the passive sensors like electro vision sensors. In this paper, experiment for a measurement of relative position using optical camera is treated and a relative position of the 3㎞-ahead target is measured. GPS position is obtained to use as a reference data for accurate analysis and relative position of the target is measured and saved via the real-time running program.

Two-mode modularity clustering of parts and activities for cell formation problems

Kong, Taewoon,Seong, Kyungje,Song, Kiburm,Lee, Kichun Elsevier 2018 COMPUTERS & OPERATIONS RESEARCH - Vol.100 No.-

<P><B>Abstract</B></P> <P>Cell formation in cellular manufacturing is a critical step to improving productivity by grouping parts and machines. Numerous heuristic search algorithms and several performance measures have been used in finding an effective cell formation solution. It is still a challenging task to find a good cell formation that satisfies several performance measures. Clustering approaches aim to find good clusters of parts and machines according to their own similarity measures. We propose a two-mode modularity clustering method with new similarity measures for parts and machines using an ordinal part-machine matrix. The proposed method considers both incidence and transition among parts and machines and can find an optimal number of clusters. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method using cell formation problems in comparison with a few existing ones. The result shows that the proposed method produces good cell formation solutions in terms of several performance measures. In addition, we show a possible application area of the proposed method in process mining, using it to find interpretable clusters of processes and activities from real-life event log data.</P>

Characteristics of Relative Navigation Algorithms Using Laser Measurements and Laser-GPS Combined Measurements

강대은,박상영,손지혜 한국우주과학회 2018 Journal of Astronomy and Space Sciences Vol.35 No.4

This paper presents a satellite relative navigation strategy for formation flying, which chooses an appropriate navigation algorithm according to the operating environment. Not only global positioning system (GPS) measurements, but laser measurements can also be utilized to determine the relative positions of satellites. Laser data is used solely or together with GPS measurements. Numerical simulations were conducted to compare the relative navigation algorithm using only laser data and laser data combined with GPS data. If an accurate direction of laser pointing is estimated, the relative position of satellites can be determined using only laser measurements. If not, the combined algorithm has better performance, and is irrelevant to the precision of the relative angle data between two satellites in spherical coordinates. Within 10 km relative distance between satellites, relative navigation using double difference GPS data makes more precise relative position estimation results. If the simulation results are applied to the relative navigation strategy, the proper algorithm can be chosen, and the relative position of satellites can be estimated precisely in changing mission environments.

用途地域制의 法的 性質에 관한 考察

송현담(Song, Hyun-Dam),육동연(Youk, Dong-Youn) 한국토지공법학회 2012 土地公法硏究 Vol.56 No.-

用途地域制는 도시관리계획의 하나이다. 도시관리계획의 법적 성질에 대하여 법규범이냐 아니면 행정행위이냐는 것은 중요한 의미를 갖는다. 판례의 입장은 도시관리계획은 구속적 계획으로서 處分性을 인정하는 태도를 취하고 있다. 그러나 도시관리계획이 行政行爲로서의 성질을 갖는다 하더라도 取消訴訟을 제기하여 權利救濟를 받기 어려운 한계가 있다. 이는 행정청에게 計劃裁量이라는 광범위한 形成의 自由가 인정되고 있기 때문이다. 대법원은 形成의 自由는 무제한적인 것이 아니라고 하면서 利益衡量의 탈락․흠결 또는 利益衡量상의 평가 과오의 경우를 裁量權을 逸脫․濫用한 것으로 판시하고 있다. 판례가 학설상의 衡量命令과 衡量瑕疵및 計劃裁量이념을 채택하였다는 점은 평가할수 있으나, 衡量命令의 법적 근거에 대해 판시를 하지 않은 점과, 衡量瑕疵용어를 결여한채, 그것을 裁量權의 逸脫․濫用으로 이해하는 판시를 한 것은 논리상 문제가 있다. 計劃裁量의 경우 衡量瑕疵그 자체가 위법이 원인이 되며, 따라서 衡量瑕疵의 輕重에 따라 결과로서의 行政計劃이 無效또는 取消事由를 지닌 것으로 평가되어야 하는 것이다. Land use zoning is one of City Management Plan (CMP). There has been a debate on what is a legal nature of CMP, because CMP has both sides of legal status at the same time; a legal norm and/or an administrative act. The court has taken a stance that CMP is an administrative act, because CMP is a kind of restrictive plan which allows the government to have a administrative disposition. If CMP is an administrative act, the private rights violated by CMP can be remedied through an administrative suit for revocation. However, in the real world, the violated private right cannot be easily remedied because the government's discretionary power on CMP has been recognized very widely as a freedom of formation. The Supreme Court had decided that the government's freedom of formation shall not be an unlimited power and thus the government's discretionary power shall be deviated or abused when there are deviation, defect, or mis-calculation of profit-loss measurement of government's discretionary power. It is meaningful that the judicial precedent had adopted the academical reasoning regarding to profit-loss measurement on administrative act, defects of profit-loss measurement, and discretionary power on land use planning. Nevertheless, the judicial decision seems to have some limitations such as the court did not mention the legal basis of ordering profit-loss measurement and the definition of defects of profit-loss measurement when the court decided deviation, defect, or mis-calculation of profit-loss measurement of government's discretionary power. In the case of discretionary power on land use planning, the defects of profit-loss measurement itself can be the cause of illegal administrative act. In such a case, the administrative planning shall be invalidated or cancelled pursuant to the gravity of the defects of profit-loss measurement.

송전선로의 동기페이저를 이용한 고장점 표정장치

이경민(Kyung-Min Lee),박철원(Chul-Won Park) 대한전기학회 2016 전기학회논문지 P Vol.65 No.1

Fault location identification in the transmission line is an essential part of quick service restoration for maintaining a stable in power system. The application of digital schemes to protection IEDs has led to the development of digital fault locators. Normally, the impedance measurement had been used to for the location detection of transmission line faults. It is well known that the most accurate fault location scheme uses two-ended measurements. This paper deals with the complete design of a fault locator using GPS time-synchronized phasor for transmission line fault detection. The fault location algorithm uses the transmitted relaying signals from the two-ended terminal. The fault locator hardware consists of a Main Processor Unit, Analog Digital Processor Unit, Signal Interface Unit, and Power module. In this paper, sample real-time test cases using COMTRADE format of Omicron apparatus are included. We can see that the implemented fault locator identified all the test faults.