힌디어의 합성어

최종찬 한국외국어대학교 인도연구소 2013 남아시아연구 Vol.18 No.3

이 연구는 힌디어의 합성어의 형성 조건, 유형의 분류, 그리고 특성을 다룬다. 빠니니와 이후의 주석가들에 따르면 합성어를 형성하는 데 있어 필수조건은 구성요소 간의 사마르탸(s?marthya, ‘통사관계’)이다. 사마르탸는 에까르티바바(ek?rth?bh?va, ‘단일의미’) 또는 뱌뻭샤 바바(vyapek??bh?va, 상호기대)의 개념과 연결된다. 에까르티바바는 개별단어들의 의미가 부수적으로 되거나 사라지고 전체의 의미만 남게 되는 것 또는 개별들에 의해서는 표현될 수 없는 것을 함께 표현하는 것을 의미한다. 이처럼 에까르티바바는 합성어와 직접 관련되는 개념으로 구성요소들이 문장에서 갖는 상호기대와 구별된다. 힌디어의 합성어 분류는 전반적으로 산스끄리뜨어 문법의 체계를 따른다. 주요 합성어의 유형으로는 아뱌이바바(avyay?bh?va, 부사어 합성어), 따뜨뿌루샤(tatpuru?a, 한정합성어), 드완드와(dvandva, 연결합성어), 바후브리히(bahuvr?hi, 소유합성어) 등이 있으며 이와 같은 분류는 구성요소간의 의미관계를 중심으로 한 것이다. 힌디어 문법은 이와 같은 분류를 따르거나 또는 분류된 유형의 개념을 그대로 적용하는 경향을 보인다. 이와 관련하여 힌디어 합성어 분류에 문제점이 제기된다. 우선 바후브리히는 융합합성어에 해당하지만 후자에 해당하는 모든 경우의 합성어들을 포함하지 못한다. 이에 따라 드완드와로 분류되는 일부 합성어들이 융합합성어에 참여한다. 그러나 드완드와는 내심구조를 갖는 합성어로서 외심구조를 갖는 융합합성어와 충돌한다. 이처럼 합성어 분류에서 의미기준과 통사기준이 혼합되어 있어 부분적으로 혼란이 일어나고 있다. 다른 한편으로 반복어를 합성어의 관점에서 다루는 심층적 연구가 아직 이루어지지 않았다. 반복어는 그 형태와 의미를 고려해 볼 때 아직 숙어의 수준에 머무르는 것에서 온전히 합성어의 조건을 충족시키는 것에 이르기까지 스펙트럼을 보여준다. This study analyses the concept of s?marthya ‘syntactic relation’, the necessary condition for forming compounds. It also deals with classification and characteristics of Hindi compounds. P??ini’s idea of s?marthya was interpreted as either ek?rth?bh?va ‘semantic unity’ or vyapek??bh?va ‘mutual expectancy’ by Sanskrit grammarians. It is called ek?rth?bh?va where the meaning of the individual words (of the compound) has been subsidiary or it has been lost altogether, or the words are rendered useless by the main object expressed as a whole, or they express altogether different things inexpressible by them individually. ek?rth?bh?va is expressed in a compound form whereas vyapek?abh?va of words in a sentence. Hindi grammarians have tended to classify Hindi compounds according to the Sanskrit grammatical tradition. There are avyay?bh?va ‘adverbial compounds’, tatpuru?a ‘determinative compounds’, dvandva ‘coordinative compounds’ and bahuvr?hi ‘possessive compounds’ among others. Those categories are classified on the basis of the semantic relation between the compound elements. Regarding those categories, there arise some problems with Hindi compounds. Bahuvr?hi is categorized as the one and only exocentric compound in Hindi, but it does not cover all the compound words which should be categorized as an exocentric compound. Some compounds belonging to dvandva, an endocentric compound, are used to denote the meaning of something other than its own constituents. In this way types of compounds in Hindi seem to be classified by applying both semantic and syntactic criteria at the same level, which resulted in confusion. In addition, reiterative words in Hindi have not been fully studied in terms of compounds. Some reiterative words show characteristics of a compound and others show those of an idiomatic expression, covering both ends of the spectrum.

합성어의 형성 원리— ‘선술’형, ‘섞어찌개’형 합성어를 중심으로 -

송재목 사단법인 한국언어학회 2022 언어학 Vol.- No.93

This paper examines word-formation rules of Korean compounds composed of a verb and a noun. In a V-N or N-V compound, the noun usually corresponds to the verb’s argument or adjunct. It has been pointed out in previous studies that ‘subject + transitive verb’ compounds are hardly (if not impossible) allowed in synthetic compounds or N-V compound verbs, while ‘subject/adjunct + intransitive’ or ‘object/adjunct + transitive’ compounds are often found. This paper claims that such restriction is not limited to synthetic compounds or N-V compound verbs but is a general restriction that applies to all types of V-N or N-V compounds in Korean. There are, however, two types of V-N compounds in Korean whose noun components are not in the relation of argument or adjunct to the verb components: senswul-type and sekkeccikae-type compounds. In both types of compounds, we cannot establish an argument or adjunct relationship between the verb and the noun. It seems that they are not constituents of the same clause but belong to two separate clauses in their syntactic and semantic counterparts. The verb is the predicate of the first clause and the noun is the object argument of the second clause. The verb component of senswul-type compounds is always intransitive and takes the adnominal suffix ‘-(u)n’, whereas that of sekkeccikae-type compounds can be either transitive or intransitive and takes the connective suffix –e or -(e)se. Such combination of a verb and a noun is not possible in a syntactic construction. Their existence clearly shows that morphological structures and rules are different from syntactic ones in Korean.

건조마늘과 기름에 볶은 마늘의 향기성분

서혜민,주광지,Seo, Hye-Min,Joo, Kwang-Jee 한국식품영양과학회 2007 한국식품영양과학회지 Vol.36 No.3

마쇄한 생마늘과 생마늘을 동결건조한 분말의 함황화합물과 휘발성 향기성분의 변화를 관찰하기 위하여 마늘을 동결 건조시켜 분말로 제조하고, 마늘과 동결건조 마늘을 콩기름과 참기름에 $180^{\circ}C$에서 각각 5분간 볶은 6개의 시료를 제조하여 향기성분을 추출하였다. 마늘의 독특한 향기를 나타내는 sulfur compounds로서 methyl allyl sulfide, diallyl sulfide, methyl allyl disulfide, diallyl disulfide, methyl allyl trisulfide, diallyl trisulfide 등이 확인되었으며 diallyl disulfide와 diallyl trisulfide의 함량이 풍부하였다. 이 sulfur compounds 성분들은 마늘의 총 향기성분의 98%를 차지하여 마늘의 주요 구성분임을 다시 한 번 확인하였다. 건조마늘에서 확인된 향기성분은 마늘에서 검출되지 않았던 aldehyde, alcohol, furans, esters가 생성되어 개별 향기성분의 수는 마늘의 것보다 더 많았으나 sulfur compounds와 향기성분의 총 함량이 마늘의 것보다 감소하였다. 콩기름에 볶은 건조마늘의 sulfur compounds 함량은 크게 감소하여 건조마늘의 sulfur compounds 함량의 20%에 불과하여 그 함량이 크게 감소하였다. 마늘을 콩기름과 참기름으로 가열하였을 때 allicin의 분해 생성물인 많은 양의 3,4-dihydro-3-vinyl-1,2-dithiin과 2-vinyl-4H-1,3-dithiin이 확인되었다. 그리고 건조마늘을 콩기름과 참기름에 가열하였을 때 마늘의 아미노산과 당류의 반응에 의하여 생성된 2-methyl pyrazine, 2,6-dimethyl pyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methyl pyrazine 등 17개의 pyrazine이 관찰되었다. 건조마늘을 참기름에 볶은 시료에서 확인된 개별 향기성분의 수는 모든 마늘시료 중에서 가장 많았고 향기성분의 총 함량도 마늘의 것과 거의 동일하여 차이가 없었으나 sulfur compounds의 함량은 마늘의 27%에 해당되었다. 건조마늘을 콩기름과 참기름으로 가열함으로써 그 함량이 마늘 자체의 것보다 오히려 증가한 것은 diallyl sulfide, methyl allyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide이었다. 마늘에서 그 함량이 가장 많았고 마늘의 독특한 향기성분을 내는 diallyl disulfide는 건조하여 참기름으로 가열함으로써 파괴되어 완전히 소멸되었다. The purpose of this study was to investigate the change of flavor compounds of freeze-dried garlic and garlic roasted with soybean oil and sesame oil. Freeze-dried garlic and ground raw garlic roasted with oils was prepared at $180^{\circ}C$ for 5 minutes. Volatile compounds of garlic samples were obtained by Likens-Nickerson distillation/solvent extraction and identified by GC and GC/MS. Sulfur compounds, methyl allyl sulfide, diallyl sulfide, methyl allyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide, diallyl disulfide, methyl allyl trisulfide and diallyl trisulfide were the major volatile in garlic flavor which was more than 98% of the total volatile compounds. The total amount of sulfur compounds in freeze-dried garlic roasted with soybean oil was decreased to 20% compare to that of garlic flavor; however, 10 pyrazines such as 2-methyl pyrazine, 2,6-dimethyl pyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methyl pyrazin and 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl pyrazine which were not originated from both freeze-dried garlic and soybean oil were identified. They might be generated from thermal interactions of sugars and nonvolatile flavor precursors of garlic. In freeze-dried garlic roasted with sesame oil, the amount of diallyl sulfide, methyl allyl disulfide, dimethyl trisulfide increased whereas diallyl disulfide completely disappeared. The amount of two cyclic compounds 3,4-dihydro-3-vinyl-1,2-dithiin and 2-vinyl-4H-1,3-dithiin, which were artifacts from allicin, increased in roasted garlic with sesame oil.

은유적 계사 합성어에 대한 개념적 혼성 분석

김동환 미래영어영문학회 2014 영어영문학 Vol.19 No.2

The purpose of this paper is to consider how meanings of metaphorical compounds, especially metaphorical copulative compounds are constructed through the mechanism of conceptual blending. It is usually said that the constituent components of a compound are usually combined to have its literal meaning. However, there are compounds that do not necessarily succumb to the compositionality principle. To a large degree, these compounds are called figurative compounds, which are divided into metaphorical and metonymic compounds. In this paper, I have managed to identify four types of metaphorical compounds by examining in the ways conceptual metaphor acts upon noun-noun compounds in English: (1) metaphorical compounds where the modifier is metaphorical; (2) metaphorical compounds where the head is metaphorical; (3) metaphorical compounds where both the modifier and the head are metaphorical; (4) metaphorical compounds where the relation between the two constituents is metaphorical. Of these four types of metaphorical compounds, I specifically analyze the meaning construction of the forth type of metaphorical compounds, which is called metaphorical copulative compound in my own terms, based on the mechanism of conceptual blending.

Non-Synthetic Compounding in Sakha

Nadezhda Vinokurova 한국알타이학회 2020 알타이학보 Vol.0 No.30

This paper considers the nature of compounding in Sakha (Yakut), a Turkic language spoken in north-eastern Siberia (Russian Federation), and provides both descriptive and theoretical grounds for classifying nominal compounds in Sakha. The focus of the study is on primary compounds and therefore synthetic, deverbal compounds are left out of consideration. Arguments are offered for a mixed classification of nominal compounds in Sakha based on both semantic and formal features. The main reason for the necessity of a mixed approach lies in the discrepancy between semantic and formal characteristics of a compound. Although a compound can be endocentric (having a head) from a formal point of view, it can nevertheless be exocentric (without a head) on semantic grounds. The following three types of nominal compounds will be distinguished – root compounds, possessive compounds and dvandva compounds. It will be argued that even though a compound has a complex syntactic makeup consisting of more than one word, nevertheless it functions as a single lexeme/word and also denotes as such.

LC-MS/MS를 이용한 담배 중 Amadori Compounds의 분석

민혜정,김영회,이정민,장기철,Min, Hye-Jeong,Kim, Young-Hoi,Lee, Jeong-Min,Jang, Gi-Chul 한국연초학회 2011 한국연초학회지 Vol.33 No.1

Amadori compounds(1-deoxy-1-amino-2-ketoses) are important precursors of color, flavor and aroma produced in foods. Amadori compounds occur naturally in tobacco. The contribution of amadori compounds to smoke quality has been (of) interest because of their roles of the Maillard reaction in the leaf chemistry. The amounts of these compound in tobacco are affected by the processes of aging, drying and storage conditions. In this study, eight compounds were chemically synthesized because amadori compounds (have not been sold commercially these days.) were not available for obtaining commercially. The aim of this study was to develop the analytical method of amadori compounds in tobacco leaf by the liquid chromatography mass spectrometry using triple quadrupole analyzer(LC-MS/MS). This method was simple, rapid, selective and sensitive, and eight amadori compounds were simultaneously and quantitatively analyzed within 20 minutes. This method showed excellent accuracy and precision. Recovery rates of amadori compounds ranged from 86% to 102%, with relative standard deviation(RSD) ranged from 2.6% to 5.9%. This method was applied to analysis of amadori compounds contents of tobacco leaves in different varieties. Furthermore, it was expected that the method could be extended to the analysis of other amadori compounds.

감의 페놀성 화합물과 변색관련 물질의 안정화

박용곤,김흥만,강윤한 한국식품영양학회 2000 韓國食品營養學會誌 Vol.13 No.2

떫은감과 그 연시의 페놀성 화합물의 변화를 조사하고 변색관련 물질의 특성을 구명하고자 하였다. 연시의 페놀성 화합물은 주로 클로로겐산과 카테킨류가 주를 이루고 있었다. 전반적으로 떫은감으로부터 연시를 제조할 경우 페놀성 화합물의 함량이 감소하나 총페놀성 화합물에서 차지하는 카테킨류의 비율은 감소되지 않았다. 손상과 연시의 페놀성 화합물은 거의 고분자량 획분인 것으로 나타났으며, 총페놀성 물질은 고온이 상온에 비해 전반적으로 높게 추출되었다. 페놀성 물질 중 카테콜, 클로로겐산, (+)카테킨의 각 표준품을 물, 80% 메탄올로 0.3% 용액을 제조한 후 변색방지제인 비타민 C, 구연산, L-cystein을 첨가하여 변색방지 효과를 검토한 결과 갈변이 심한 (+)카테킨의 변색을 현저히 억제하였다. This study was conducted to determine changes in phenolic compounds of astrigent persimmons before and after softening process and evaluate discoloring properties of major phenolic compounds. Phenolic compounds in sfot persimmons were mainly composed of catechins and chlorogenic acid. Although contents of phenolic compounds were reduced during the softening process, little change in the ratio of catechins to total phenolic compounds was observed. Most of phenolic compounds in damaged astringents persimmons were existed in the high molecular weight fraction and more phenolic compounds were extracted at the temperature higher than room temperature, To evaluate discoloring abilities of phenolic compounds, phenolic compounds were dissolved separately into water or 80% methanol. With presence of various amounts of anti-discoloring agents such as vitamin C, citric acid, and L-cystein, (+)catechin was significantly reduced.

The Stimultaneous Determination of Phenolic Compounds by GC and GC/MS

Kim, Jong-Bae,Park, Jyung-Rewng The Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition 1998 Preventive Nutrition and Food Science Vol.3 No.2

To develop a simple, rapid and simultaneous analytical method of phenolic compounds using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrophometer (GC/Ms), this experiment was carried out to search the retention times of capillary columns and the characteristics of fragment ions in electron impact mass spectra. Most of trimethylsilyl derivatives and underivatized phenolic compounds were separated very well on three kinds of capillary columns(HP-1), Ultra-2 and HP-35). Quantitiative determination of phenolic compounds was achieved by internal standards (p-hydroxybenzoic acid iopropyl ester, p-hydroxybenzoic acid ethyl ester). Calibration plts were linear in the investigated range, and the limits of detection were about 5 ng at split mode method. When analyzed by three columns, theseparation times were fairly constant on two nonpolar columns, but a few compounds showed slightly different separation order by the itnermediate polar HP-35 column. The important characteristic patterns of TMS derivatives of phenolic compounds on the EI/MS spectrra appeared at the base peak of [M-15]+ ion and presented at high abundance in most TMS derivatives of phenoloc compounds. [M]+, [M-CH3-COO]+, [M-Si(CH3)4]+ and [M-Si(CH3)4 -CH3]+ also observed in mass spectra of these compounds . Although several compounds have the same retention times on GC column, it might be possible to identify these compounds by the different patternsof mass frgement ions. The TMS derivatives, thus , provide additional information for identification of phenolic compounds in biological systems.

Analysis of Phenolic Compounds in Sorghum, Foxtail Millet and Common Millet

Jeon, Hyun-Seok,Chung, Ill-Min,Ma, Kyung-Ho,Kim, Eun-Hye,Yong, Soo-Jung,Ahn, Joung-Kuk The Korean Society of Crop Science 2011 한국작물학회지 Vol.56 No.4

The cereal grain crops have strong flexibility against adverse environment and they have various functional compounds. The objective of the present study was to screen phenolic compounds in sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], foxtail millet (Setaria italica), common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with photodiode array (PDA) detector. Sorghum contained the highest amount of phenolic compounds among three different crops (sorghum, foxtail millet, common millet). Especially Moktaksusu showed the highest amount of phenolic compounds concentrations and biggest regional differences. The comparison of average phenolic compounds in sorghums by regions showed order to Milyang ($963.3\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$), Yeongyang ($923.1\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$), Gijang ($831.3\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) and Bonghwa ($735.6\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$). Among the sorghum cultivars, Moktaksusu ($1407.9\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) had the highest concentration of phenolic compounds. The average phenolic compounds of foxtail millets showed similar amount among Milyang ($319.0\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$), Gijang ($288.1\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) and Bonghwa ($281.9\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) areas. The phenolic compounds of Yeongyang ($246.6\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) slightly low and that showed similar concentrations among three different regions. The concentration of phenolic compounds in foxtail millets, Chungchajo ($335.6\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) showed the highest concentrations. The average phenolic compounds of common millets showed the highest concentrations in Milyang ($305.5\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$), Bonghwa ($262.0\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$), Gijang ($195.1\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$), Yeongyang ($237.2\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) in decreasing order. The concentration of phenolic compounds of common millets was the highest in the Norangchalgijang ($337.0\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$), Hwanggumgijang ($250.0\;{\mu}g{\cdot}g^{-1}$) was also relatively higher than others. The results of this study will provide basic information for breeding sorghums, foxtail millets and common millets with higher phenolic compound concentrations.

Analysis of Phenolic Compounds in Sorghum, Foxtail Millet and Common Millet

전현석,안종국,정일민,마경호,김은혜,양수정 한국작물학회 2011 Korean journal of crop science Vol.56 No.4

The cereal grain crops have strong flexibility against adverse environment and they have various functional compounds. The objective of the present study was to screen phenolic compounds in sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench],foxtail millet (Setaria italica), common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with photodiode array (PDA) detector. Sorghum contained the highest amount of phenolic compounds among three different crops (sorghum, foxtail millet, common millet). Especially Moktaksusu showed the highest amount of phenolic compounds concentrations and biggest regional differences. The comparison of average phenolic compounds in sorghums by regions showed order to Milyang (963.3 μg・g-1), Yeongyang (923.1 μg・g-1), Gijang (831.3 μg・g-1) and Bonghwa (735.6 μg・g-1). Among the sorghum cultivars, Moktaksusu (1407.9 μg・g-1) had the highest concentration of phenolic compounds. The average phenolic compounds of foxtail millets showed similar amount among Milyang (319.0 μg・g-1), Gijang (288.1 μg・g-1) and Bonghwa (281.9 μg・g-1) areas. The phenolic compounds of Yeongyang (246.6 μg・g-1) slightly low and that showed similar concentrations among three different regions. The concentration of phenolic compounds in foxtail millets, Chungchajo (335.6 μg・g-1) showed the highest concentrations. The average phenolic compounds of common millets showed the highest concentrations in Milyang (305.5 μg・g-1), Bonghwa (262.0 μg・g-1), Gijang (195.1 μg・g-1),Yeongyang (237.2 μg・g-1) in decreasing order. The concentration of phenolic compounds of common millets was the highest in the Norangchalgijang (337.0 μg・g-1), Hwanggumgijang (250.0 μg・g-1) was also relatively higher than others. The results of this study will provide basic information for breeding sorghums, foxtail millets and common millets with higher phenolic compound concentrations.