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홍성화 고려대학교 역사연구소 2015 사총 Vol.86 No.-
Although fiscal policy in early Ming Dynasty based on spot goods, the issue of the currency is inevitable for government. It was hard to issue the currency massively due to the inflexible fiscal policy in Ming Dynasty. So they had chosen ‘Baochao(寶鈔)’ which costs less comparatively as the currency. But ‘Baochao(寶鈔)’ was vulnerable to excessive issue with less values in possession and could not function as the currency as time went by. The Ming Dynasty also acknowledged the issue of ‘privately issued coins(私錢)’ seriously. As officials also suggested proposals through merchandised order, inducing 鋪行 into system is outstanding but the most striking thing is that they suggested to let it go in private currency market unlike the current common sense and prefer less discussion on ‘monetary regime(錢法)’ in the government, regarding the discussions on ‘monetary regime(錢法)’ as a troubleshooter for public attention of people. Even though providing enough제전 would be desirable, it was difficult with finance situation in Ming Dynasty. In terms of this, it could not help issuing different coins in various qualities with diverse financial conditions. It means that ‘government issued coins(制錢)’ could not guarantee a good quality of coins. For example, Chongzen Tongbao(崇禎通寶) with mixed kinds in quality separately seemed not that good coins to use. Meanwhile ‘privately issued coins(私錢)’ had almost same quality of government issued coin. Like this, as issue of coins in Ming Dynasty was not enough, most commercial transaction happened inside through silver greatly contributed to increasing the flexibility of commercial transaction. That is, incorporation into silver-economy had a lot of side effects. As silver was handy, wealth in a region moved to another region easily, entailing imbalance between regions and classes. In other words, the mobility of silver had been maximizing and gap between the rich and the poor had deepened in the late Ming Dynasty. Further to this, not going smoothly of silver-flux in Chongzhen reign caused serious social issues. 명초의 재정정책이 아무리 현물 위주라고는 하지만 화폐 발행은 정부로서도 필수불가결한 일이었다. 명조의 재정정책은 그 규모가 비탄력적이었기 때문에 경화(硬貨)를 대량으로 발행하는 것이 쉽지 않았다. 그래서 이들은 발행 비용이 상대적으로 적은 ‘보초(寶鈔)’를 선택하여 통화로서 공급하려고 하였다. 그러나 보초는 그만큼 소재가치가 낮고 남발되기 쉬운 약점을 지니고 있었고, 시간이 지나면서 화폐로서의 기능을 잃게 되었다. 홍치년간 이후 동전 발행이 활발해졌지만, 그 목적은 시장에 良貨를 공급한다는 차원에서가 아니라 주초 차익을 도모하는 것이었고, 이 점은 장거정 집권기를 제외하고는 그 뒤에 줄곧 이런 경향은 유지되었다. 특히 天啓・崇禎年間에는 遼餉으로 인하여 재정 위기가 점증되자, 악화를 발행하는 경향이 더욱 강해졌다. 이처럼 명조의 동전 발행은 충분하지 않았기 때문에, 대부분의 상거래는 銀으로 밖에는 이루어지지 않았고 이러한 현실이 상거래의 유동성을 증대시키는 커다란 원인이 되었다. 이러한 점에서 볼 때, 명말의 은량 사용의 증대는 실제로 악화의 남발 속에서 이루어진 부득이한 측면이 있다고 할 수 있다. 따라서 16세기 중엽 이후 ‘銀經濟’로의 편입을 단순히 사회경제사적인 발전이나 도약으로만 파악할 수 없다. 이렇게 광범위하게 사용된 銀은 휴대와 운반에 용이하였기 때문에, 한 지역의 부가 손쉽게 다른 지역으로 운반됨으로써 지역간 내지 계층간의 소득 불균형을 초래하였다. 다시 말하자면 명말에 은의 유동성이 극대화되자, 이는 빈부 격차의 심화라는 현상을 가져왔으며, 이에 더하여 해외에서 은유입이 순조롭지 않게 되자 명조 멸망의 한 원인으로 작용하였던 것이다.
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홍성화 세계평화교수협의회 1975 아카데미論叢 Vol.3 No.1
本稿는 以下에서 첫째 第 2次大戰을 계기로 하여 무엇때문에 人權의 문제가 國際法의 對象이 되었는가를 밝히고 둘째, 人權의 國際的 保護를 위한 諸條約을 들고 마지막으로 人權全般에 관한 一般的 國際條約이 旣存의 國際法 主體論에 미치는 영향을 叛述的 方法으로 考察하는데 그 目的이 있다.
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洪性化 건국대학교 1986 學術誌 Vol.30 No.1
An international organization is an organ that maintains a regular and permanent structure which deals with necessary office work in order to achieve its purpose and mutual cooperation for the common objectives according to the treaty made by more than two nations. To the international structure various power is provided fort· the organization, purpose, and regulation. This power is being carried out detailly by this organization. For this purpose, the authority is also provided. This power is recognized at all aspect of international organization. In view of an organ of international organization, so called, division, combination, and coordination could be listed as the various principles. These written principles could be called as the law of international organization. By directing certain goal, this will attempt to make a law that could systematize centering the power or authority of an organization or organ as a trigger that forms decision. This thesis is goal toward a study on the transfer of power as a type of polder combination in the international organization. The transfer of power hero can be refered to as the delegation of power. Based on the premise of agreement made between the delegation and acceptance of power it implies at least to a part of power is being transfered. This kind of study will be undertaken from the following three viewpoints; Frist, by observing the transfer of power the nature of one's own line of conduct and autonomy will be studied. Second, if the transfer of power and combination of power can be understood, then, it is considered that it might not be possible to make precise understanding on the part of organizational relationship. Therefore, this study will particularly searched on the precise legislative position of international organization. Finally, from a little different direction than before in the organization significance as described previously, this study will also search to find out what could be presented as an aspect of the law of international organization.
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