학창(學創) 이종록(李鍾祿) 선생 창조교육 60년 기념 교육 논총 : 창조교육의 사상과 실천 ; 초등학생을 위한 창조성 개발 프로그램

장기명 창조교육학회 2005 창조교육의 사상과 실천 Vol.1 No.-

대학생의 의사결정유형·진로결정수준·진로준비행동의 관계연구

장기명 원광대학교 학생상담센터 1998 學生指導硏究 Vol.- No.19

신라 월성 서성벽의 축조 공정과 인신공희

장기명,최문정,박정재 영남고고학회 2022 嶺南考古學 Vol.- No.92

월성은 신라 마립간기에 축조된 거대한 토목 구조물로서, 신라 멸망 때까지 왕성으로 기능하여 정치·행정 중심지로 존속되었다. 최근, 월성 발굴조사는 그동안 미진했던 월성 성벽과 내부 궁궐을 대상으로 진행되었고, A지구 서성벽 조사에서 월성의 초축 연대, 축조 공정과 성벽 제의인 인신공희가 분석되었다. 본고에서는 발굴 자료의 검토, 자연과학적 분석(성토 재료, AMS 연대 분석 등)을 통해 월성 서성벽의 축성 과정과 인신공희 특징을 종합적으로 다루고자 하였다. 서성벽 조사구역은 축조 구간별로 서성벽1, 서성벽2로 구분되며, 서성벽1, 2 사이에 존재했던 서문지는 유실된 채 성벽의 중심 골조 연결부만 잔존한 상태였다. 서성벽1은 초축된 1차 성벽이 세워진 이후 시간적 격차를 두고 3차례 정도 보수, 정비되었으며, 2~4차 성벽은 보축 흔적을 통해 구분되면서 성토 재료, 보축 범위 또한 시기별로 상이성을 보여준다. 서성벽2는 인신공희를 포함한 1차 외벽을 1984~85년 시굴 트렌치와 연결하여 초축 성벽의 전반적인 양상을 확인하였다. 1차 성벽은 기저부 조성층 → 인신공희 → 중심 토루 → 4차례 성토 공정을 거쳐 완공되었다. 축조 공정별 출토 토기와 분석된 AMS 시료 연대로 볼 때, 월성 서성벽은 4세기 중엽 전후에 착수해 성벽 기초부를 조성한 후, 인신공희를 필두로 한 체성부 성토를 4세기 후반~5세기 초라는 기간에 걸쳐 축성했던 것으로 상정된다. 서성벽 구간은 습지에 가까운 연약한 지반의 토대 위에 지정공법, 목제 구조체, 부엽공법 등을 활용해 기저부 조성하였고, 체성부는 외피 석축시설로 지탱한 중심 토루를 구축한 이후 점토 블록 - 볏짚 유기물질 – 사질점토 등을 사용해 여러 차례 성토하고 두꺼운 피복토로 마감하는 축조 공정을 보여준다. 인신공희는 성벽 체성부가 본격적으로 축조되기 직전에, 후속될 서성벽2의 진행 방향을 따라 중심 토루의 가장자리에 맞춰 배치되었다. 인신 희생(50대 남녀 인골·성년 여성 인골), 동물 훼기(대형 포유류의 늑골 선별), 토기 공헌(음용류 기종 위주) 등이 유기적으로 연결되고, 의도적 매납이 인정되어 제의적 기획성을 갖추었다. 서성벽 인신공희에서는 최소 3구 이상의 조사 사례, 형질학적 분석을 통해 인신 희생의 선별 기준으로 다양한 연령대와 낮은 신분이 확인된다. 한편, 85년 시굴 및 90년 발굴조사에서 보고된 20구 이상의 인골과 동물뼈는 ‘흑색 재층’의 출토 정황이 기저부 조성층 마감면~1-2차 성토 사이의 층위로 판명됨으로써, 초축된 1차 성벽의 축성 과정에 존재했던 희생적 상황이 분명하며 향후 인신공희의 맥락과 비교 검토해 볼 필요가 있다.

고고자료로 본 4~6세기 포항지역 읍락 구조와 지배 집단의 재편

장기명 한국고대사학회 2019 韓國古代史硏究 Vol.0 No.96

이 글의 목적은 6세기 초에 세워진 포항지역 2비(중성리비, 냉수리비)와 해당 시기 고고학 자료를 서로 비교하고 연계함으로써 마립간기 신라 중앙과 지방의 관계를 밝히는 데 있다. 자연 지형 및 자원에 기반한 유적의 분포와 특징을 분석하여 4~6세기에 걸친 포항지역 물질자료의 통시적 변화를 살펴보았다. 분석 결과를 통해 포항 일대에 존재했었던 지역 정치체의 내부 구조와 지배 집단에 대해 접근하였으며 6세기 초에 세워진 2비의 쟁점거리를 재지 세력의 입장에서 비교 검토해볼 수 있었다. 포항지역은 지형적 경계와 유적의 분포를 기준으로 볼 때 6개의 읍락으로 구성되었으며 각기 단위별로 존재한 자연 자원과 교통적 입지도 달랐다. 일정 영역을 터전으로 해서 모든 읍락은 농업 자원, 교통로 입지, 물류(소금, 철 등) 유통 등과 같은 사회적, 경제적 기반을 추진력으로 발전했을 것으로 상정되며 흥해 국읍에 존재한 옥성리고분군은 이와 같은 변화상을 대변해주는 물질적 기록이라 여겨진다. 포항지역은 경주 왕경에 인접해 위치함에 따라 이른 시기에 직접 지배권으로 편입되었고 흥해 국읍은 신라 중앙에 의해 철저히 재편되었다. 마립간기에 접어들어 흥해 국읍의 인근에 남미질부성이 축조되는 현상을 제외하면 고총현상, 지역 양식 물품과 같은 물질문화가 전혀 확인되지 않아서 경주 왕경에 완전히 종속된 양상을 보인다. 5세기 후엽에 이르러 석실묘 조영으로 개시된 대련리고분군과 냉수리-흥곡리고분군이 대규모로 축조된다. 그 저변에는 고구려와의 외교 관계에서 비롯된 북쪽 동해안 일대의 정세 변동에 적극적으로 대응하기 위해 교통 요충지 지점에 실시한 신라 중앙의 후원이 깔려있다. 이후 건립된 냉수리비는 일정 기간 이루어진 의도적 후원이 일단락되고 관련 재지 세력이 재편되는 상황을 말해준다. 이런 변화는 마립간 및 부체제를 벗어던진 신라가 여러 개혁을 추진함으로써 국가 지배력 강화와 지방 재편을 도모한 결과이다. 그로 인해 농업 관리에 대한 국가적 조치의 일환으로 흥해 국읍의 재편이 또다시 이루어졌고 토지 수취권의 분쟁을 종식 시킨 중성리비가 남겨진다. The purpose of the article is to reveal the relationship between the central and provincial sections of the Silla Dynasty during the Maipgan period by comparing and linking the second monument in Pohang (Jungseongri and Chansuribi) built in the early 6th century with the archaeological data of the period. By analyzing the distribution and characteristics of historical sites based on natural terrain and resources, we looked at the usual changes in material data in Pohang over the four to six centuries. The results of the analysis gave us an approach to the internal structure and ruling group of the local political community that existed in the Pohang area, and we could compare the two-dollar issue, which was established in the early 6th century, with that of the real estate forces. The Pohang area consisted of six towns based on geographical boundaries and the distribution of historical sites, and the natural resources and transportation positions that existed in each unit were also different. Based on a certain area, it is assumed that all townships have developed social and economic bases such as agricultural resources, transportation routes location, and distribution of logistics (salt, iron, etc.) as momentum, and that the Okseongri tomb group that existed in the center town of Heunghae is regarded as a material record representing such changes. The Pohang area was directly incorporated into the dominion at an early date as it was located adjacent to Gyeongju’s royal palace and the Heunghae center town was thoroughly reorganized by Silla’s central center. Except for the construction of the MiZeal earthen ramparts near the township of Heunghae in the early period of the Maipgan period, no material culture, such as the Huge tomb phenomenon and local food products, has been identified, showing a completely subordinate aspect to the Gyeongju royal group. The Daeryeon Ancient Tomb and the Nangsuri-Hunggok High Divine Group, which began with the contrast of stone chamber tomb in the late 5th century, will be built on a large scale. Diplomatic relations with Goguryeo, the base from fluctuation of the situation in the East Sea Coast area north of traffic a key point to positively cope with the Silla kingdom, the central point. The post-constructed Nangsuri monument refers to the situation in which the intentional sponsorship of a certain period of time is terminated and the related wealth forces are reorganized. The change is the result of Silla’s push for reforms that have taken off the maremagans and corruption to strengthen national control and reshape the provinces. As a result, the reconstruction of the center town was carried out again as part of national measures against agricultural management, and the Jungseongni monument was left to end the dispute over land rights, was left.

신라 궁성의 건립과 확장을 둘러싼 논의와 새로운 모색

장기명 한국고대사학회 2022 韓國古代史硏究 Vol.- No.108

In this paper, in order to understand the center of Silla, which has changed over a long period of time, the process of transformation was tracked by focusing on the core element of Palace. The northwest area of Namsan Mountain corresponds to a wide highland adjacent to Dodangsan Mountain and Namsan Mountain, and it is easy to use the land to avoid groundwater and wetlands. Considering the records of the Samguk Yusa and archaeological data, it is assumed that the northwestern part of Namsan Mountain developed into an early center from the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD, and gradually moved to Wolseong from around the 3rd century A. Around the middle of the 4th century, Wolseong and Wolseongbuk Ancient Tombs were built as huge civil structures, reflecting the changed Maripgan, 6Bu-system. After the unification of the three kingdoms, the structure of the royal palace was combined in the form of Donggung and Namgung, centering on Wolseong Jeonggung, and Bukgung was built near Bukcheon Stream to establish the palace system of the royal palace + a detached palace. The most prominent element of the royal palace is the national procession space that connects the inside and outside of the palace through major gates and large passageways(the southern square of Hwangnyongsa Temple, the north-south boulevard of Wolseong).

경주지역 원삼국시대 분묘의 철기부장유형과 위계

장기명 한국고고학회 2014 한국고고학보 Vol.92 No.-

Studies on Proto-Three Kingdoms Period ironware, which have been carriedout on the entire Yeongnam region, have been aimed at clarifying the genealogyand cultural features of the iron artifacts, but they have not paid any attention tothe ideological and economical contexts within which the ironware was buriedwith the dead. Accordingly, in recognizing this issue, this study has focused onthe fact that ironware grave goods were objects used in burial ceremonies, inorder to consider the social meanings that its use had in the Gyeongju region,which was the center of iron production. Various features of the ironware buriedwithin these tombs were analyzed in order to deduce patterns that could beused in the restoration of the burial rituals of the time. The burial pattern of ironware observed limitedly in the Gyeongju areaseems to have been established based on the foundation of certain burial ritualsthat emerged as a result of the ironware being regarded as social propertyin this locale which was a center of ironware production. The tumuli groupof the Gyeongju area is assumed to have actively expressed the identity ofthe deceased through the use of ironware as grave goods – this practice isthought to have developed into a burial ritual, unique to the Gyoungju area,that reflected the social hierarchy of the time. In other words, the mediumof ‘iron’, which can be regarded as the social property of that area, wasstrategically combined with burial rituals so that the a unique economical andideological hierarchial structure might be formed within society. This enablesthe assumption that the social and political consolidation of power was ideallyenhanced through such burial practices.

신라 월성 성벽의 구간별 축조 공정과 왕경의 축성 기술

장기명 한국상고사학회 2023 한국상고사학보 Vol.120 No.120

In this article, the construction process was analyzed by dividing Wolseong, a royal castle of Silla, by construction section. By comparing Dodangsan Fortress and Namsan Fortress, it was intended to reveal the construction technology of Silla Wanggyeong. In addition, in order to see if the construction technology of the Wanggyeong Fortress was confirmed in other buildings, the exchange of fortification technology was reviewed by comparing tombs and embankments. Wolseong was analyzed by dividing it into a moat section, a west wall section, and a north wall section, and the preliminary survey of Japanese colonial era and the 2011 excavation survey were used as supplementary data. In view of the section of the west wall and the section of the north wall, it is believed that the built-up wall will be completed after the formation of the base → the central frame → three to four times of extending construction. The basic construction process was the same overall, but the three sections show the construction of the wall using different construction techniques and materials according to the base conditions. In addition, in the moat section and the west wall section, traces of repairs were found two to three times after the wall was built, and the outer wall or inner wall was partially supplemented according to the maintenance situation. As Dodangsan Fortress and Namsan Fortress were built in a way that made hills → built slopes, a different construction technology from Wolseong Fortress was identified. Both fortresses were constructed with a construction method suitable for small-scale earthen fortifications, and as it is estimated to be a political space and a government building, it can be seen that they were efficiently built according to the purpose of construction. On the other hand, although Silla’s stone-mounded wooden chamber was built at the same time, the similarity of fortification technology was captured only in the Hoseok structure, where the functional sector was emphasized, and various construction techniques were shared for each construction process in the embankment.

월성 해자의 조사 성과와 고환경 연구와의 접점

장기명 동국대학교 WISE(와이즈)캠퍼스 신라문화연구소 2021 新羅文化 Vol.58 No.-

Since the Proto Three Kingdoms Period, the moat site has been identified as a settlement along certain points that are easy to live and use while avoiding river flooding and wetlands. In the Three Kingdoms Period, a Pit moat was excavated along the northern side of Wolseong Fortress, which is estimated to be 25 to 45 meters wide, indicating that it had a larger area than other moats at the same time. The construction period is believed to correspond to the mid to late 4th century, following the construction of the base of the wall, in conjunction with the construction of the body wall. The Pit moat was repaired and repaired once before and after the 5th century, to solve structural problems caused by the severe difference in moat width and area in certain sections. As a result, the moat floor was excavated again to maintain a wooden board wall facility of 1.2 to 1.5 meters in height, and the maintenance of the drainage system would have effectively led to the management of drainage and flow under terrain conditions vulnerable to flooding or groundwater elution. After the unification of the Three Kingdoms, the moat was renovated as a landscaping facility, instead of reducing its defense function due to low external threats. The stone moat, which was reborn as a landscaping facility, was designed to allow water to flow through the entrance and exit gates installed at every midpoint, making the northern part of Wolseong Palace feel like a garden complex full of scenery. Gradually, the total area of the stone moat will be greatly reduced after two to four renovations. As the number of stone moats decreased, government buildings were lined up and filled. Not only the Wolseong Palace but also the Silla Wanggyeong area reached the peak of urban development, significantly changing the composition of green areas, including trees, from natural vegetation landscapes, and important buildings were expanded and renovated overall.

효모 Phaffia rhodozyma 의 융합체와 Carotenoid 생성

장기명,김문휘,송명희,김상문,전순배 ( Kee Myung Chang,Moon Hee Kim,Myung Hee Song,Sang Moon Kim,Soon Bai Chun ) 한국균학회 1993 韓國菌學會誌 Vol.21 No.1

2~4세기 사로권역 철기의 부장체계 조직화와 위세경제 소비 구조

장기명 한국고고학회 2022 한국고고학보 Vol.- No.125

By structurally analyzing the burial context of ironware that was consumed ostentatiously in tombs from the 2nd to 4th centuries, this article attempts to explain the production method, distribution and consumption network of the ironware, as well as the spread of associated burial rituals led by Saro-guk. After the establishment of the Ceremonial Ironware Style, large quantities of ironware were produced rapidly; it spread in conjunction with Saro-guk’s unique burial ritual, which spearheaded the ostentatious consumption of ironware, thereby establishing a wide-area distribution network. On the other hand, from this point on, the raw materials for Dalcheon mine were stably obtained from within the Saro-guk area, as can be seen from the case of Hwangseong-dong site. It is inferred that the Hwangseong-dong site was operated using a systematic division of tasks that specialized in the melting process related to cast iron production in a short period of time. In the middle of the 3rd century, the large number of burial ironware types gradually simplified into difficult decorations to meet the broad demand of ironware both within and outside of Saro-guk. The iron production system also underwent innovative changes in the supply of iron, and the introduction of steel manufacturing technology allowed mass production of iron by breaking away from labor-intensive work processes, and led to effective reduction in transportation costs. The enlarged distribution and consumption network of iron was gradually transmitted to the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, beyond the territory of the Jinhan federation led by Saro-guk. From the middle of the 4th century, Silla’s ruling elite adopted gold burial goods and pottery styles as strategies for representation in tombs, and ironware lost its status as a major grave good. This study demonstrates how the mass consumption of ironware, organized by political power, had to adapt to new burial strategies and rapidly changing circumstances. 이 글에서는 2~4세기에 걸쳐 분묘에 과시적, 위세적으로 소비된 철기의 부장 맥락을 구조적으로 분석함으로 써, 사로국이 주도한 부장용 철기의 생산 방식, 유통·소비망, 매장의례 확산을 유기적으로 설명하고자 하였다. 2세기 중엽부터 철기 부장체계가 확대 개편되면서 ① 기존 철기 기종의 기술 교류와 형식 다양화, ② 위세적 철기 등장과 부장 차별화, ③ 의기성 철기의 양식 분립과 대량 부장이 간취된다. 특히, 의기성 철기 양식이 성립된 이후, 철모를 위시한 부장 전용 기종이 급격히 대량 생산되고, 철기의 과시적 소비를 선도하는 사로국 특유의 매장의례(屍臺 배치, 두부 부장)와 맞물려 확산되어 부장용 철기의 광역적 유통망을 구축한다. 3세기 중엽에 접어들면 철모, 단조철부, 유자이기와 같이 많은 수량이 소비되는 기종은 점차 제작 방식이 까다로운 공부나 궐수형 장식을 간소화하여 표준 형태를 만들었고, 사로권역 내·외부적으로 광범위하게 요구된 철기 수요를 감당해 냈다. 제철 생산 시스템 또한 철(기) 공급 면에서 혁신적 변화가 일어나는데, 초강 기술이 도입되면서 노동집약적 작업 공정을 탈피해 철의 대량 생산이 가능해졌고 철광석 산지에 연계된 생산 거점(채광 → 제련, 용해 공정)을 설비하여 운송 비용적 측면에서 효과적인 절감을 이끌었다. 4세기 전~중엽에 이르러 신라의 지배 세력은 금공품과 토기 양식을 분묘의 표상 전략으로 채택하였고, 철기는 주요 부장품의 지위를 상실하게 된다. 결과적으로 철기 부장체계에서 부장 전용 기종이 주축을 이룬 의기성 양식은 사라지고, 철기가 대량 소비되는 양상도 급격하게 중단된다. 목곽묘 시기인 대략 150년에 걸쳐 부장용 철기의 유통과 소비는 위세경제 네크워크를 구축하여 사회경제적 파급 효과를 불러왔고 정치 권력이 의도한 결과였다. 하지만 정치 권력에 의해 조직화된 철기의 대량 소비는 급변하는 상황 속에서 새로운 분묘 전략에 맞춰 가변적일 수밖에 없는 상황을 여실히 보여 준다.