김수영 시에 나타난 "탈식민적 언어"의 양가성

배개화 ( Gae Hwa Bae ) 한국어교육학회 2006 국어교육 Vol.0 No.121

한국전쟁 동안의 현덕과 그의 소설

배개화(Bae, Gae-hwa) 한국현대문학회 2020 한국현대문학연구 Vol.0 No.61

한국전쟁 초기, 김일성은 선전정책의 방향을 결정했고 조선로동당은 선전의 운용 정책을 결정하고 통제했다. 고상한 애국주의가 선전 노선으로 결정되었으며, 북한 문학자들은 김일성을 전쟁 승리의 조직자이자 영도자이며, 조선인민군과 북한 주민들이 발휘하는 애국심의 원천이라고 선전하였다. 그러나, 1950년 10월 13일부터 박헌영이 신설된 조선인민군 총정치국장에 임명되어 조선인민 군의 정치 문제를 책임지게 되었으며, 영웅들의 애국심의 원천을 조선로동당과 인민민주주의로 보는 선전 노선을 주장하였다. 1951년 3월부터 조선로동당 선전선동부와 조선문학예술총동맹에 합류한 남로당 계열의 문학가들도 선전 분야에서 박헌영의 노선을 지지했으며, 현덕도 박헌영의 노선을 반영한 단편소설들을 창작하였다. 북한에서 발표된 현덕의 첫 번째 작품인 「복수」(1951.5)는 김일성이 조선인민군의 일시적인 전략적 퇴각에 책임이 있다고 암시했다. 「복수」는 전략적 후퇴 중에 북한 정권을 위협하고 인민군과 북한 주민의 사기를 떨어뜨린 미 공군의 폭격을 자세히 묘사하고, 미군이 점령한 북한 지역의 끔찍한 상황을 사실적으로 묘사했다. 이러한 묘사를 통해 현덕은 김일성을 “승리의 조직자이자 영도자”로 묘사하지 않고 패배와 절망의 정서와 연결하였다. 이에 대응해서, 김일성은 1951년 6월 30일 작가들과의 대화에서 복수를 자연주의적 작품이라고 비판했다. 고상한 애국주의의 선전에서, 현덕은 박헌영의 선전 노선을 철저히 따랐다. 「하늘의 성벽」(1951.6), 「아름다운 사람들」(1951.6), 「첫 전투에서」(1952.10)는 북한의 전투 영웅들을 모델로 실제 사실에 근거하여 창작된 작품들로서, 김일성이 아니라 조선로동당과 인민민주주의가 전투 영웅들에게 애국심을 고취하는 것으로 묘사했다. 특히 첫 전투에서는 주인공이 조선로동당을 상징하는 박[헌영]이라는 인물의 격려에 고무되어 미 공군과의 항공 전투에서 큰 전공을 세우는 것을 묘사하였다. 결론적으로, 현덕의 작품들은 김일성을 전쟁 승리의 조직자이자 영도자로 묘사하지 않았으며, 전투 영웅의 애국심의 원천은 김일성이 아니라 조선로동당과 인민민주주의라고 선전하였다. 현덕 소설의 이런 경향은, 1952년 12월 15일, 김일성이 박헌영과 남로당 계열 작가들이 부르주아 사상과 파벌주의로 조선로동당을 사상적 조직적으로 약하게 만들어서 전쟁의 승리를 방해하였다고 비판하고, 그들을 숙청하는 이유로 이용되었다. From the beginning of the Korean War, Kim Il-sung proposed the course of a propaganda policy, while the Korean Workers" Party (KWP) decided the operational policy and controlled the details of the propaganda with the results being a direct reflection of the leader’s politics themselves. After October 13, 1950 however, Pak Heon-yeong took charge of resolving the political problems and applied his ideas in determining the direction of the propaganda. From March 1951, writers of the ex-South Korean Workers" Party (SKWP) joined the KWP and the Korean Federation of Literature and Arts, and supported the line of Pak Heon-yeong in the field of propaganda. Hyeon Deok was chief amongst the SKWP writers who supported Pak’s line. In North Korea, Hyeon Deok"s first work, “Boksu” [Revenge] (May 1951), laid sole blame on Kim Il-sung due to the ‘temporary strategic retreat’ of the Korean People’s Army (KPA). “Revenge” depicted the bombing by the U.S Air Force which plagued the North Korean regime during the temporary retreat and reduced the morale of not only the People"s Army but also the North Korean civilians. Moreover, it realistically described the North Koreans" terrible situation in the occupied territory while painting a picture that the North Korean people"s loyalty towards Kim Il-sung was betrayed and the People’s Army was not ready to fight against the UN forces. In response, Kim Il-sung branded “Revenge” as a naturalistic work in a speech to writers on June 30, 1951. With regards to the propaganda of patriotism, Hyeon Deok’s follow up works comprehensively fell in line with the viewpoints of Pak Heon-yeong. Short stories such as "Haneul-ui seongbyeok [The Walls of the Sky]" (June 1951), "Areumdaun saramdeul [Beautiful People] (June 1951), and “Cheot jeontu-eseo [In the First Battle]” (October 1952) were modeled after "combat heroes" of North Korean air forces and were based on actual events. The stories presented the perspective that the source of patriotism exerted by the heroic soldiers was not Kim Il-sung but the KWP and people’s democracy. Specifically, "In the First Battle" depicted an air force combatant who was encouraged by Pak [Heon-yeong] symbolized as the KWP, and who became a combat hero due to his distinguished victories in the air battle against the US air forces. In conclusion, Hyeon Deok"s works reflected Pak Heon-yeong"s perspective that Kim Il-sung was responsible for the temporary strategic retreat of the KPA. Furthermore, by supporting Pak Heon-yeong"s propaganda line, his writings described that the KWP and the people’s democracy were in fact the motivating force behind combat heroes promoting their patriotism. In December 1952, Kim Il-sung used Hyeon Deok’s short stories as evidences to condemn Pak Heon-yeong and the ex-SKWP writers for having bourgeois ideology and factionalism. Finally, Kim Il-sung purged the Pak and the ex-SKWP writers from the KWP on account of that they made the KWP weaken ideologically and organizationally and therefore hindered the victory of North Koreans in the Korean War.

『東光』을 통해 본 근대적 글쓰기의 형성

배개화(Bae Gae-Hwa) 국어국문학회 2008 국어국문학 Vol.- No.150

By the middle of the 1920's, with the progress in Korean grammar research, Eonmunilchibeop〔Korean parlance permitting the use of Chinese nouns〕, widely used in publication at that time, got more and more criticism from Korean linguists, and Sungukmunbeop〔Korean parlance prohibiting the use of Chinese letter〕 put forward as a substitute. The literary magazine Donggwang. first published in May 1926, was well known to be applied Sungukmunbeop for the first time among publications. The writing system stands for the way of sentence composition based on the orthography announced by the Korean Language Association in 1933. With the above premise, this essay sheds light on the following questions. First, this essay viewed theoretical background for the formation of Sungukmunbeop which was propagated by linguists of becoming Korean Language Association, and checked theoretical characteristics of Donggwang. Second, this essay made clear the dispute among Korean linguists regarding the matter of how to handle the 'Chinese letter' and their theoretical background which bring about the difference between Sungukmunbeop and Eonmunilchibeop. Donggwang linguists suggested the concept of 'standard writings,' using only Korean letters'. Third, examining the style of works in Donggwang written by Choe Seohae and Ju Yoseop, members of Singyeonghyangpa〔anticonventional school〕, one of literary movements in Korean modern history, this essay also verified the establishing process of full Korean parlance as a literature language. They materialized Sungukmunbeop in short-novel that was considered as transplanted literature, and testified its possibility as a modern writing style.

이태준, 남로당 빨치산 문학의 기원

배개화(Bae, Gae-hwa) 국어국문학회 2015 국어국문학 Vol.- No.171

The partisan literature of Korea can be divided into the anti-Japanese partisan literature before liberation and South Korean Workers Party [SKWP] partisan literature after liberation. Yi Tae-jun’s short stories such as Chotjeontu [First Battle] and Gohyanggil [A Road to Home] falls into the latter, and deal with military struggle for national power within the South Korea around the foundation period of South and North Korea’s regimes. Yi Tae-jun, a moderate, at first agreed with the views of SKWP which aimed to establish a peoples democratic country centered around Seoul. However, the SKWP switched definition on the United States from a ally to imperialist country after the rupture of the Joint Soviet-American Commission on Oct. 1947, and adopted a guerilla struggle against Rhee Syngman regime after Aug. 1948. This sudden change in the political landscape after Oct. 1947 and the new tactics of SKWP soon clashed with his political expectations. First Battle, one of Yis two partisan novels, originally portrayed his skeptical view on guerilla warfare, resulting in pressure by the party to revise the works. It has two different versions with different conclusions, with the first version expressing his pessimistic view of guerilla warfare ending with a defeat, while the revised edition fell more in line with the partys views and the warfare ended with a victory. Despite the revisions, the atmosphere of collapse and melancholy was shared between both versions. A Road to Home portrays the sentiment of the absolute war against the absolute enemy settling down during the Cold War, while deviating from the official party views of patriotism, whose role model is Kim Il-sung. There arouse a controversy among North Korean writers about who should be the role model for patriotism for SKWP and the Peoples Army during the Korean War. 〈A Road to Home〉 played a critical role in causing the controversy as well. In conclusion, Yi’s two short stories captures how the moderates of his time viewed the fate of SKWPs partisan struggles, the SKWP factions literature line, and the reason of the downfall of their writers, all the while showing the aesthetic idiosyncracy of Yis literature that exceeded the limitations of party literature.

신문학사조사의 방법과 전략

배개화(Bae Gae-hwa) 한국현대문학회 2008 한국현대문학연구 Vol.0 No.25

백철의 신문학사조사는 문학의 내용과 사상을 중심으로 기술한 문학사이다. 이는 ‘이식문학’이라는 개념과 밀접한 관련이 있다. 소위 ‘이식문학’의 관점은, 근대문학이 비록 조선어를 매개로 성립되었음에도 불구하고, 문학의 사상은 모두 외부로부터 수입되었다고 보는 것이다. 백철은 시대를 초월해서 관철되는 조선 문화의 아프리오리 한 특수성이란 바로 이식성이라는 생각을 갖고 있었는데, 그것을 문학사 기술에도 일관되게 관철시키고 있다. 이 점에서 1930년대의 백철의 사유와 해방 이후의 사유 사이에 연속성이 존재한다. 둘째, 전체적으로 신문학사조사의 기획은 1930년대 중후반에 그가 논한 비평의 핵심적인 주장을 합리화하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 또한 백철은 자신이 1930년대 후반기의 휴머니즘론이나 순수문학론의 계승자임을 증명하려고 한다. 셋째, 백철의 비교문학적 태도는 스스로의 서술적 권위를 확립하기 위한 중요한 전략이다. 비교문학적 태도를 통해서 백철은 외부의 시선과 자기의 시선을 일치함으로써 서술적 권위를 얻으려고 한다. 이것은 문학 연구자의 식민지적 의식이 극복되지 못했음을 보여준다. 이것은 우리 문학 연구에서 발견되는 태도, 즉 한국문학을 서양문학에 미달하는 문학으로 다루는 것의 원인이 되었다. 백철의 문학사 연구는 현대문학연구의 출발이 되었다는 의의만큼이나 극복해야할 과제를 남기고 있다. Baik Cheol’s《Main Currents of Thought in Korean New Literature》, mainly centered at ideological facade, has close relationship with the concept of ‘transplantation literature.’ He insisted that, albeit modern Korean literature was established at the basis of Korean language, all of its content and thought were imported from outside. He believed that cultural peculiarity flowing through the whole Japanese colonial period has the quality of transplantation, and always applied this idea in his description of new literature history. Therefore, following conclusions could be inferred from his descriptions. First, there is the continuity in his thought between 1930’s and after liberation. Second, his literary history mainly aimed to rationalize main argument of his 1930’s criticism. Under the purpose of rationalizing his political position of the neutrals right after liberation, he classified the development stages of new literature history based on literary currents, and equivalently treated each current. Third, Baik Cheol’s comparative literature attitude is an important strategy to place himself on the descriptive authority. Even after liberation, Baik Cheol still trapped in colonial consciousness, that caused an academic distortion. Baik Cheol's practice offered a background for so called ‘research trend to accuse the insufficiency of Korean literature.’

이태준의 장편소설과 국가총동원체제 비판으로서의 ‘일상정치’

배개화(Bae, Gae-hwa) 국어국문학회 2013 국어국문학 Vol.- No.163

Yi Tae-jun’ <Cheongchun museong> (1940) and <Byeoreun changmada> (1942-3) interpreted critically nationalism and the “National Total Mobilization”(1938-45) from the perspective of the ‘politics of everyday life.’ The colonial authority of Korea not only forced Koreans to participate in realizing ‘Pan-Asianism’ of the Japanese empire, but also by ‘the National Total Mobilization’ did control the way of eating, wearing and sleeping in everyday life, and even putting nationalistic Japanese overtones on sympathizing others. On the other way, the western modus vivendi, liberalism, and cultural-ism, which having prevailed in everyday life since the ‘Enlightenment Period,’ were ostracized as non-Japanese and nonnational. Yi Tea-jun by pluralizing the meaning and values of everyday life, challenged Japan’s national plan which utilized everyday life as a field for training Koreans as Japanese citizens. For example, in his novel <Cheongchun museong>, Yi has rewritten the ‘social welfare service’ monopolized by the colonial authority as actualization of common good based on the solidarity of Koreans. By recreating civil and liberalistic public interests imaginatively, he questioned on fascistic and non-liberalistic public interests which was circumscribed by the goal of the colonial regime, such as maintenance of social order, encouragement of allegiance to Japan, and logistical assistance. In <Byeoreun changmada>, Yi Tae-jun criticized the national control on modus vivendi of everyday life such as eating, clothing and sheltering from a western cultural-ism standpoint. Yi, via young main characters dreaming the construction of beautiful and moralistic culture, criticized Japanese fascism from the perspective of the politics of everyday life, which standardize and homogenize everything into the nationalistic and logistical. Yi, by critical rewriting the daily control and nationalism of Japanese fascism, hoped to realize his politics of the imagination against it.

한국전쟁기 유항림의 「진두평」의 장르에 관한 논쟁 -소설이냐? 전투 실기냐?

배개화(Bae, Gae-hwa) 한국현대소설학회 2021 현대소설연구 Vol.- No.81

In August 1951, Yu Hang-lim published a short story about one of the Heroes of the Republic, “Jin Du Pyeong.” Regarding the story, An Ham-kwang said, in a literary review on 2 January 1951, that “Jin Du Pyeong” was a ‘real story of the battle (Jeontu silgi)’ that well portrays the hero of the republic. On the contrary, Yi Won-jo classified “Jin Du Pyeong” as a short story (soseol) in a review titled “On the Literary Figuration of a Hero” in February 1952. The disagreement of these two critiques led to a debate over which genre “Jin Do Pyeong” belonged to. In July, controversy by the Korean Federation of Literature and Arts [KFLA] was held on the issue of whether “Jin Du Pyeong” was a real story or a short story. At this debate, the KFLA’s leading writers Yi Tae-jun and Kim Nam-cheon concluded that “Jin Du Pyeong” was a short story, although it had features of biography and reportage. Nevertheless, in November, Eom Ho-seok criticized Yi Won-jo for spreading the naturalist literary trend to the KFLA writers on the grounds that Yi reviewed “Jin Du Pyeong” as a short story rather than a real story. Then, on December 15th, at the 5th plenum of the Korean Workers Party [KWP], Kim Il-sung purged Park Heon-young, Vice Chairman of the KWP, for being responsible for introducing the reactionary ideas of American invaders into the Party. Kim Il-sung followed this by also purging Park Heon-young affiliated writer Yi Won-jo and others for producing what he thought were naturalist works that undermined North Korean peoples dedication to victory and for the errors that promoted sectarianism within the KWP and KFLA. In order to rationalize these purges, Han Hyo, in his January 1953 review of “Korean Literature in the Struggle with Naturalism,” criticized Yi Won-jo for promoting the creation of naturalist work by distorting the genre of “Jin Du Pyeong” into realist literature. And Han concluded that Yi was a spy of US imperialism who had penetrated the ideological front of North Korea. However, the story was included in A Collection of Yu Hang-lim’s Short Stories in 1958, and being classified a short novel in the History of North Korean Literature[Bukhan munhaksa] in 1994. These clearly demonstrated that “Jin Du Pyeong” was used by Kim Il-sung as means of purging Park Heon-young and his affiliated writers from the KWP and the KFLA.

『문장』지의 내간체 수용 양상

배개화(Bae Gae Hwa) 한국현대소설학회 2004 현대소설연구 Vol.- No.21

Munjang(the style). a Korean literary magazine of the late 1930s is one of representative examples for a reception of tradition: that of `neganche.` the female style letter writing of the Choseon dynasty. The `neganche` is an important mediation to understand an aesthetic sense shared with writers so called the `munjangpa`(the circle of the style): Byeonggi Lee, Jiyong Jeong. and Taejun Lee. The `neganche` is a good example for the munjanpa`s reinterpretation of tradition. Futhermore. an introduction of the tradition to the public and a practice of the tradition is meaningful from the sense of an advocation Korean language and literature against the Japanese colonial policy for assimilating Korean into Japanese. It is Byeonggi Lee who introduced the `neganche` to the public through Munjang he published Haniungrok(The Princess Diary) and Inhyungwanghujeon(The Story of Queen Inhyeon) with annotations on MurUang. He considers that `neganche` is the typical style of Korean traditional prose writing, which, he thinks, embodies characteristics of a modern prose: the appropriation of private words. Jiyong Jeong put the style of `neganche` into practice on his essays and poetry. That experiment is a sort of `dandyism,` demonstrating a denial of usefulness and a nostalgic inclination to the past. Taejun Lee`s reception of the `neganche` is due to his interest for what is an authentic prose, which, according to his understanding, is beyond a usefulness of vernacularized language for writing, and is more than a practical tool of everyday communication. It is a beauty of sentence that is the most important criterion for him to estimate a value of prose. And he finds its aesthetic model in the `neganche`

민족어, 민족문학, 리얼리즘

배개화(Gae Hwa Bae) 한국현대소설학회 2008 현대소설연구 Vol.- No.37

Korean modern language was based on the idea of the national language, and formed through linguistic standardization with the need of nation-state. During the colonial period (1909-1945), however, Korea lost the position of nation-state, which delayed the formation of ``national language`` as well as ``national literature.`` Yim Hwa asserted that national literature must contained international(socialistic) content and national form. He believed that the ``nation`` is the community of the capital society, which formed the two classes of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. At this stage, nation literature has two types of national literature, that is to say, the proletarian and the bourgeoisie literature. He argued that ``Korea Artista Proleta Federatio``(KAPF) writers must pursue proletarian literature, made of international content and national form. Yim Hwa, and also, well understood political function of the written language, and defined the vernacularization as the democracy in language, and as a goal of the proletarian literature. Since the latter of 1920`s, he believed, KAPF writers have in charge of completing historical mission, vernacularization. Yim Hwa proclaimed that this mission should be accomplished by producing realistic literature such as Yi Giyeong` Gohyang[hometown], to whose language he gave the highest applause as the summit of the Korean language. He thought that modern national language can be completed not by just printing dialects or public language (volk-sprache) but by the normatively reformed language, which is based on the aesthetic principle of the (social) realism. Finally, He seems to well understand the political function of letter language. Considering these facts, it concluded that national language and literature proclaimed by Lim Hwa can not separate from establishment of the Nation-State. In this point, his post-colonial consciousness is very clear.

이태준의 여성교양소설과 가부장제 비판

배개화(Bae, Gae-hwa) 국어국문학회 2014 국어국문학 Vol.- No.166

This essay verified that Yi Tae-jun’s female heroin novels, <Seongmo (Holy Mother, 1935)>, <Ttalsamhyeongjae (Three Sisters, 1938)>, <Cheong chun museong (Exuberant Bloom of Youth, 1940)> and <Haengbogeui Huinsondeul (White Hands of happiness, 1942-3)> criticized patriarchism in colonial Korean society. Yi viewed a preference for male offsprings and patriarchism as evidences of semi-feudalism prevailed in colonial Korea, hindering to progress women in personality as a modern citizen. Since the proclaim of ‘The Total Mobilization Act’ in 1938, the criticism on patriar chism extended into paternalistic nationalism of imperial Japan. As Japanese nationalism acts as the ideology to control the everyday life of Korean, social oppression over women became more reinforced. Korean women were requested to play role of not only ‘good wife and wise mother’ for their family but also the people loyal to Japanese empire. The ‘Total Mobilization System’ criticized ‘modern women’ so called sinyeoseong for being liberal, individual, decadent, unproductive, unpatriotic, and non-Ja panese, stressing that they have to fulfill their hierarchial duties in society and family. However, Yi Tae-jun, by creating bildungsroman with female heroin such as a divorced woman and a working woman, denied paternalistic nationalism, wishing to show matrilineal or alternative family based on the culture and education. In conclusion, at first Yi Tae-jun’s bildungsroman dealt with women’s issues and patriarchism in colonial Korea from the viewpoint of Korean nationalism, but after break of Sino-Japanese War in 1937, its viewpoint was turn into liberalism and culturism which was criticized as non-Japanese at that time.