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      • KCI등재

        미국 지배 시기 필리핀의 ‘내각 위기’ 진행 과정에서 미·필 지도부의 극한대립(1923-1927)

        권오신 강원대학교 인문과학연구소 2022 인문과학연구 Vol.- No.72

        The United States colonized the Philippines for about half a century from 1898 to 1946. The purpose of this paper is to clearly expose the typical and representative oppression of the Republican administration, which attempted to suffocate Filipino leaders with a coercive stance. Moreover, this paper will focus on a time which is considered a symbol of American “terrorism and oppression” to understand the essence of American imperialism, which used “despotic” means to proactively exercise its governor authority. During this very time, in 1921, Wood was appointed the Governor General of the Philippines. To put it simply, Wood sought to be the commander of action who would clearly represent the U.S. Republican colonial guidelines and tendencies, and it can be said that he faithfully fulfilled this role. This meant a transition to not only a policy of interference and control of the “Filipinization” policy, but a policy of active oppression. Armed with a Republican point of view, Wood was considered a representative figure of colonial repression. Governor General Wood considered it his responsibility to reform the “critical situation” of the colony and to build an efficient and orderly government suitable for American rule. Wood emphasized absolute authority and exercised administrative power that overly focused on results and exercised governorship in an overly coercive manner. Filipino leaders protested against Wood’s tendencies, triggering the “Cabinet Crisis”, which escalated to an extreme confrontation for the rest of his term. In this regard, Governor Wood’s time in office was a period in which confrontations with Filipino leaders, repression in response to these confrontations, and backlash against the repression were continuously repeated. 미국은 1898년부터 1946년까지 약 반세기 동안 필리핀을 식민지로 운영했다. 미국 집권당의 변화에 따라 식민지에 대한 정책적 적용도 확연히 구별되었다. 대체로 민주당이 집권하면 유화정책과 독립가능성 제시를, 또 공화당이 집권하면 대체로 탄압정책과 독립 불가를 강조하는 일반적 경향성을 보이고 있었다. 이 글의 목적은 강압적 자세로 필리핀 지도자들을 질식시키려 했던 공화당 집권기의 전형적이고 대표적인 억압적 현장을 적나라하게 보이고자 함에 있다. 총독 권한을 적극적으로 실행하기 위해 ‘독재적’ 수단을 사용했고, 미국의 ‘폭정과 압제’의 상징으로 간주되는 그런 시기에 집중하면서 미국 제국주의의 본질적 속성을 파악해 보고자 하는 것이다. 공화당 시각으로 무장하여 식민지 탄압의 전형을 보여준 인물이었던 것으로 보여진다. 우드 총독은 식민지의 ‘비판적 상황’을 개혁하고, 미국 지배에 상응하는 효율적이고 질서 잡힌 정부를 구축하는 것을 자신의 책무로 간주했던 것이다. 그는 필리핀에 대한 올바른 처방, 즉 진솔한 정부와 견실한 행정에 대한 처방책을 가지고 있었지만 문제는 그의 접근 자세나 처리 방법이 효과적이 아니라는 것에 있었다. 우드는 절대적 권위를 강조하고 결과에 집착하는 행정력을 운영하면서 지나치게 강압적으로 총독권을 행사했던 것이다. 이런 우드 총독의 경향성에 대해 필리핀 지도자들이 반발하면서 ‘내각 위기(Cabinet Crisis)’ 사태가 발생하였고, 이어진 총독의 잔여 임기 내내 극단적 대치국면으로 진행된 것이다. 그런 점과 관련지어 볼 때 우드 총독 재임기는 필리핀 지도자들과의 대결 국면, 그것에 대한 탄압, 그리고 다시 탄압에 대한 반발의 양상이 지속적으로 반복되었던 시기였다.

      • KCI등재

        대공황 , 미국의 필리핀 식민통치 변형

        권오신 한국미국사학회 1999 미국사연구 Vol.9 No.-

        Partial free trade was established when the United States Congress approved the Payne-Aldrich Act. in August 1909 By this law, American goods of all kinds and in unlimited quantities could enter the Philippines free of duty. Philippine exports, however, were allowed to enter the United States under specific quota limitations. In 1913, Congress passed the Underwood-Simmons Act which abolished the quota limitations on Philippine exports to the United States. The free trade relations established in 1913 remained practically unchanged until the passage of the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934. The Philippine Assembly protested the establishment of free trade on the ground that it would have a prejudicial effect on the revenues of the country and would make it difficult to protect the native industries. But they could not change the situation. Philippine trade with the United States increased considerably with the establishment of sovereignty in the Philippines, and even more so with the adoption of free trade. The adoption of free trade was responsible for the economic prosperity achieved during the American regime. The prosperity brought about by free trade, however, was not only artificial and illusory but was also dependent upon the continuation of free trade relations between the United States and the Philippines. As the Philippine economy had become utterly dependent on the American market and the Filipinos had become more accustomed to American goods, the struggle against free trade had become so increasingly hopeless that it had to be abondoned altogether. In the 1930's, the United States was suffering from a most serious depression and certain American vested interests became the PIS(Philippine Independence Mission)'s aggressive allies in its agitation for independence. The strongest force working for the settlement of the Philippine problem consisted of farmers and dairymen. Believing that the free entry of Philippine agricultural products, particularly sugar and coconut oil, had made grave inroads upon the income of the American farmers, representatives of American agricultural interests agitated for Philipiine independence. To summarize their repetitious arguments, the commodities produced by American agriculture were subjected to downward price pressure by the free entry of Philippine products into the United States. The latter was regarded as a serious menace to their very existence. The farmers' demand for Philippine independence was supported by various labor groups in the United States on moral, social, and economic grounds. The influx of cheap Filipino labor to the United States, particularly to the Pacific Coast, had increased considerably in the 1920's. American labor organization sought the restriction of Filipino immigration. They laid stress on the competition of cheap Filipino labor with American labor. When all efforts at exclusion failed, these groups also demanded strongly Philippine independence. Under this situation, American political leaders could not find alternatives. In view of the all too-engrossing implementation of the New Deal program to solve the depression problem, Congress and President Roosevelt were ill-disposed to revive the Philippine question. After some debates, both chambers approved the bill and on March 24, 1934, President Roosevelt signed it into law. It was the Philippine Commonwealth and Independence Law(or the Tydings-McDuffie Law). Through the guidance of the above act, the Filipino peoples could get their absolute independence after 10 years from then.

      • KCI등재후보

        카톨릭 유치원의 몬테소리 교육 운영 실태와 교사의 인식

        권오신,심성경 한국육아지원학회 2009 육아지원연구 Vol.4 No.1

        This study investigates the present conditions and the teachers' recognition of the value of a Montessori education in the catholic kindergarten. The questions for research were as follows: 1. What are the present conditions of Montessori education in the catholic kindergarten? Are there any differences according to the teacher variables? 2. What is the teachers' recognition about the value Montessori education in the catholic kindergarten? Are there any differences according to the teacher variables? The subjects of this study were 280 teachers who are working at the catholic Montessori kindergartens in Korea. The questionnaire used was developed by researchers based upon Lee(2000). The collected data was statistically processed and analyzed by Frequency, t-test and One way-ANOVA with 11.0 SPSS program. The results of this study are summarized as follows: Most teachers have 3-4 years of Montessori teaching experience. Most teachers completed a Montessori teacher training course because they worked at a Montessori kindergarten. Most teachers completed Montessori teacher training through a 1 year course and are certified for completion of teacher training. Most programs were time extension programs, with one hour for Montessori programs, and operated in the same age grouping. Most program content was composed of Montessori education content and the 6th National Kindergarten Curriculum. Most kindergartens had material in five Montessori Areas. Most kindergartens changed Montessori materials according to the season and curriculum themes. Most of teachers were troubled about observation. The level of teachers' recognition of Montessori education was very high overall. 본 연구는 몬테소리 교육을 실시하는 가톨릭 유치원의 몬테소리 교육 운영 실태와 몬테소리 교육에 대한 교사의 인식을 알아보고 교사의 배경변인에 따른 차이를 살펴보는 것이다. 연구는 몬테소리 교육을 실시하는 가톨릭 유치원의 교사 261명을 대상으로 하였다. 조사결과 몬테소리 교육 수행 후 교사경력은 대부분이 4-5년 이하이며, 몬테소리 교사교육의 동기는‘유치원 필요에 의해서’가 가장 많았다. 교사들은 대체로 AMI, AMS 1년 과정을 통해 수료증을 습득했고, 재교육은 1년에 1-2회 단기연수로 이루어지고 있다. 교육운영은 대체로 5시간 정도의 시간 연장제로 단일 연령집단을 구성하고 있다. 하루 작업시간은 1시간 정도로 대개 주제관련 몬테소리 5개 영역과 국가수준 6차 교육과정의 내용을 중심으로 구성된다. 환경은 몬테소리 5개 영역의 교구를 중심으로 계절과 개인차에 맞는 주제로 구성된다. 교구제공은 유아를 1,2차선으로 나누어 1:1로 제공되며 가족과의 연계는 대체로 주, 월 교육계획안을 통해 이루어지고 있다. 몬테소리 교사는 몬테소리 교육의 어려움으로 유아관찰 기록에 대한 부담감을 가장 큰 어려움으로 인식한다. 한편 몬테소리 교육의 목적과 특징, 몬테소리 교육의 교수방법과 교사의 역할, 몬테소리 교육의 효과에 대한 교사의 인식은 매우 높은 것으로 나타났다.

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