조선 전기 對明 陸路使行의 형태와 실상

구도영 진단학회 2013 진단학보 Vol.- No.117

본 글은 조선 전기 對明 使行의 종류와 파견 횟수, 사행단의 구성과 여정, 그리고 북경에서 이루어지는 공식절차 및 비공식 외교 활동 등을 파악하여 조선 전기 대명 사행의 형태와 사행 활동의 실상을 이해하는 것을 목적으로 하였다. 조선의 대명외교가 사행을 통해 이루어졌으므로 사행의 구성과 형태에 대한 제도적 접근은 대명외교를 이해하는 데에 근간이 되며, 사행록을 통한 사행과정의 민낯을 확인하는 것은 당시 외교 활동의 실상을 보다 현실적이고 면밀하게 접근할 수 있는 계기를 마련한다는 점에서 주목된다. 사행은 크게 정기 사행인 節行과 비정기 사행인 別行으로 나뉜다. 특히 기존 연구에서는 節行 중에 冬至使가 中宗代에 추가되어 1年 3使에서 1年 4使로 이행되었다고 파악하여 왔다. 그러나 본 연구에서는 동지사는 추가된 것이 아니라, 정조사가 동지사로 대체된 것이므로 국초 이래의 1년 3사가 계속 유지되고 있었음을 확인하였다. 사행의 유형에 대한 면밀한 검토는 기본적인 사실 확인에서 그치는 것이 아니라 조선의 ‘사대’적 성격과 특징을 이해하는 주요한 전거가 되기 때문에 더욱 정확한 확인이 요구된다. 別行 파견은 국초 긴박했던 外交的 難題가 해결되고 進獻使 등이 폐지되자 15세기 후반 성종대 이후 급격히 감소하였다. 결국 조선은 사행을 더욱 많이 파견하고자 한 움직임이 없었으며, 오히려 16세기가 되면 사행파견이 15세기에 비해 절반 이하로 감소하였다. 사행단에는 正使, 副使, 書狀官의 三使臣을 중심으로 從事官, 從人, 護送軍으로 이루어졌다. 사행단은 외교문제 해결, 정보습득, 공무역 등 주요현안 해결과 통사의 중국어 능력을 배양하기 위한 조처가 안배되는 등 다양한 목적을 동시에 달성하기 위한 구성으로 이루어졌다. 사행단의 여정에 대한 구체적인 확인은 權橃의 『朝天錄』을 主本으로 하여 동 시기 여타의 『조천록』도 참고하였다. 사행단은 한양에서 압록강까지 국내 이동과정에서 각 지방의 감사, 판관, 수령, 찰방 등이 내알하여 베푸는 각종 연회와 성심스러운 대접를 받았으며, 각 지방의 관광지를 둘러보는 여유도 누렸다. 그렇지만 압록강을 건너 명 지역으로 들어가면 사정은 달라졌다. 사행단은 外國人으로서 스스로의 안위를 지켜야 했고, 驛舍의 피폐함으로 겨울에는 난방이 전혀 없는 곳에서 잠을 이루기도 하였으며, 각종 자연재해로 곤란을 겪기도 하였다. 또한 요동 관리들이 차량을 제 때 지급하지 않아 이들에게 뇌물을 바치면서 북경에 도달해야 했다. 어렵게 북경에 입성하면 조공국 사행단이 수행해야 할 공식 일정을 소화하였다. 사행단은 공식 절차를 치르는 가운데, 외교사안을 해결하는 데에 대부분의 시간을 할애하고 있었다. 양국의 공식적인 외교는 사대문서의 진상과 칙서의 화답이라는 외피로 이루어져 있었으나 조선의 사신들은 명의 문서를 마냥 기다리고만 있지 않았다. 그들은 조선의 이득에 부합하는 회답서를 받기 위해 명의 예부 관리들과 지속적으로 접촉하여 조선의 입장을 역설하였을 뿐만 아니라 조선에게 우호적인 朝鮮 出來 明使들의 집을 찾아가 조선의 외교문제가 잘 해결될 수 있도록 도움을 요청하였다. 명 예부 문서를 謄書해 와서 명 조정에서 논의되는 문서 내용을 꼼꼼하게 체크하며 수정사항을 요구하기도 하였다. 공식적인 외교는 양국의 문서 교환을 통해 이루어졌지만, 그 이면에는 원하는 회 ... The purpose of this article is to understand the types and historical facts of envoy activities to Ming dynasty in the early Joseon by examining the types and dispatch frequency of envoy, composition and journey of envoy and formal as well as informal diplomatic activities in Beijing. Envoy can be divided into periodic and non-periodic envoys. In particular, previous studies identified that Dongji envoy(冬至使) was added to previous 3 periodic envoys during Jungjong regime, which led to total 4 periodic envoy dispatch. However, Dongji envoy was not added to previous envoy dispatch. In fact, it replaced the existing Jeongjo envoy(正朝使). Thus, 3 envoy dispatch system had been maintained since the early period of Joseon. This is not only the basic truth of envoy but also indicates that the theories asserting Joseon attempted to expand envy dispatch along with the enhanced idealization of China in the 16th century should be modified. Non-periodic envoy was abruptly decreased during Seongjong regime in the late 15th century when the emergent diplomatic problems of early period were solved and the tributary envoy was abolished. Thus, there was no attempt to dispatch envoys more frequenty in Joseon. Instead, the frequency of envoy dispatch in the 16th century was less than half of those in the 15th century. An envoy team consisted of three envoys (Jeongsa(正使), Busa(副使), Seojanggwan(書狀官)), Jongsagwan(從事官), Jongin(從人) and convoy. The composition of envoy team was the combination of the missions such as solving diplomatic issues, information gathering and public trade and the measures to enhance Chinese language skills of the translators. To identify specific journey of envoy team, this article referred to 『Jocheonrok(朝天錄)』by Gwon Beol(權橃) and other similar 『Jocheonrok』at that time. During the domestic route from Hanyang(漢陽) to Aprok River(鴨綠江), the head officer of each local region provided various kinds of banquets and entertainments to consol the envoy team who would take a long journey to Beijing. The also provided the envoy team with the opportunity to visit famous attractions in their jurisdiction. However, once the envoy team entered into Ming territory crossing Aprok River, everything has changed. The envoy team has to protect themselves as foreigners and sometimes had to sleep without any heating because the posthouse condition was very poor. They sometimes suffered from natural disasters. In addition, the officers in Liadong region did not provide any vehicles timely so that they had to give bribes to obtain them for the journey. When they entered from the tough journey, they had to do formal schedules for a tributary envoy. While they fulfilled formal schedules, they spent most of times in solving diplomatic issues. Although the formal diplomacy of both countries appeared to consist of offering todayding documents and Royal letter for their return on its surface, there were many active lobbies of Joseon envoy to receive such Royal letters under the surface. In other words, Joseon envoys did not just passively wait for Ming's answer. They made active contacts with the officers in Yebu and appealed Joseon's position. They also visited Ming's high officers who had visited Joseon as Ming's envoy to ask for help to solve diplomatic issues smoothly. They even copied Ming's documents and checked how Joseon was discussed in Ming's government to ask for corrections, if any. Although the formal diplomacy was processed by exchanging formal documents between two countries, the key to problem-solving lied in the active lobbies and diplomatic activities of envoys and translators.

동적 상지운동을 동반한 호흡운동이 COVID-19 20대 여성 확진자의 폐 기능과 호흡근 근력에 미치는 영향

구도영,김솔지,김효진,박승준,윤두원,윤효인,이병국,정동주,최유진,한수민,홍진혁,김수현,정주현,김난수 대한심장호흡물리치료학회 2023 대한심장호흡물리치료학회지 Vol.11 No.1

Purpose: This study aimed to examine how breathing exercise accompanied by dynamic upper extremity exercise affects pulmonary function and respiratory muscle strength in females in their 20s who were confirmed to have COVID-19. Methods: This study included female students in their 20s who passed 3–5 weeks after being diagnosed with COVID-19. The subjects were assigned to experimental and control groups according to the participation period. The experimental group performed 10 min of warm-up and cool-down exercise and 30 min of diaphragmatic breathing exercise accompanied by dynamic upper extremity exercise three times per week for 4 weeks. Pulmonary function (forced vital capacity and forced expiratory volume at one second) and respiratory muscle strength (maximal expiratory pressure and maximal inspiratory pressure) were assessed using a spirometer. Cough capacity (peak expiratory flow) was assessed using a peak flow meter. Data analysis was performed using independent and paired t-tests. Results: No significant increase in pulmonary function and respiratory muscle strength was observed in both groups. However, the experimental group showed a significant increase in cough capacity and grip strength (p<.05). Conclusion: Breathing exercise accompanied by dynamic upper extremity exercise may be effective in improving cough capacity and grip strength in females in their 20s with confirmed COVID-19.

16세기 對明 私貿易의 정책 방향과 굴레 - 中宗代 明의 ‘조선사행단 출입제한 조치’를 중심으로 -

구도영 조선시대사학회 2012 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.62 No.-

16세기 동아시아는 전 지역에 걸친 생산력의 확대와 경제활동 범위의 확장으로 지역 간 교역 욕구가 분출되던 시기였다. 이러한 변화는 폐쇄적인 대외정책을 고집했던 明의 정치적 입장과는 이질적인 흐름이었으나, 동아시아 전반에 걸친 국제교역의 확대는 결국 1567년 明이 국초부터 祖宗成憲으로 지켜왔던 海禁政策을 부분적이나마 해제시키는 동인으로 작용하였다. 16세기 각 국의 대명 무역 행태는 밀무역이나 약탈도 서슴지 않을 정도였는데, 이는 민간 세력이 독자적으로 벌이는 횡포가 아니었으며, 대명 무역이 가져오는 이익을 얻고자 하는 官 세력의 개입 하에 이루어지는 교역 형태였다. 동아시아 전반에 걸친 생산력의 증대, 이에 따른 구매력 증가, 그리고 교환수단으로서의 銀 유통구조의 확대 등은 조선도 예외는 아니었다. 조선은 국초부터 明에게 ‘禮義之國’으로 인정되어 監察의 법망에서 보다 자유로웠으며 이 때문에 여타의 조공국에 비해 자유로운 교역을 할 수 있는 특혜를 받고 있었다. 그러한 가운데 발생한 ‘玉河館外 외 출입제한조치’는 1522년(중종 17) 禮部 郎中 孫存이 조선의 通事가 明의 관본 서책 구입을 지나치게 원칙적으로 반응하며 시작되었다. 그런데 이 조치가 취해진 이후 조선인의 교역활동이 제한을 받게 되자, 이를 이용하여 명의 일부 상인들은 조선과의 교역을 독점할 수 있었다. 더 나아가 이들은 이미 확보한 독점적 이익을 지속하기 위해 조선에 대한 출입제한조치가 지속될 수 있도록 禮部를 매수하기에 이르렀다. 명의 官權과 商權의 유착관계로 인하여 출입제한 조치의 부당함을 호소하는 조선의 노력은 성취되지 못하였다. 그런데 이 사건에 대응하는 조선의 입장과 논리는 다른 동아시아 국가의 그것과 사뭇 달랐다. 신료들은 그간의 출입자유가 조선이 ‘예의지국’으로 인정받았기에 부여되었던 특혜였던 만큼, 출입제한조치의 발생은 조선이 예의를 잃었기 때문이며 그 원인은 재화를 탐하는 사무역 행위 때문이라고 판단하였다. 사무역 때문에 조선에 대한 대우가 강등된 것을 수치스럽게 여기는 위정자들은 기존에 누렸던 예우의 회복, 즉 출입자유를 회복하기 위해 오히려 무역을 더욱 제한하고, 심지어 대명무역을 아예 폐지해야 한다는 강경한 의견을 제시하기에 이르렀다. 당시 성리학의 심화 속에서 조선은 예의지국이라는 대외적인 국가브랜드를 지키는 것이 대명 무역의 이익보다 중요한 것이었다. 16세기 사회경제적 환경이 변화하고 대명 사무역이 본격적으로 확대되면서 기존의 사무역 정책이 재검토되어야 할 시기에 출현한 출입제한조치는 사무역을 여전히 비합법의 영역으로 둘 수밖에 없는 하나의 상징적인 사건이 되었다. 즉 출입제한조치로 촉발된 ‘禮義之國’의 딜레마가 사무역 정책에 대한 다양한 고민과 입장 변화의 움직임을 봉쇄시켜 버렸던 것이다. 사무역의 확대는 시대적 대세였으나 정부는 그것을 끝내 외면하면서 정책적으로 통제하는 데에 힘을 쏟았다. 그러나 정부의 정책적 노력으로도 사무역이 철저히 금지되지도 못하는 가운데 이를 비합법적인 영역에 가둬버린 것은 결과적으로 정부와 백성에게는 이익이 되지 못하면서, 그것이 가져오는 막대한 차익을 일부 특권층과 부상대고만이 향유하게 되는 상황을 맞게 하였다. 명에게 ‘예의지국’이라는 평가는 그간 조선이 여타의 조공국보다 자유롭게 교역을 전개 ... East Asia experienced eruption of craving for trade across different regions with the increased productivity and the expanded range of economic activity in the 16th century. Although such changes were inconsistent with the political position of Ming which adhered to the exclusive diplomatic policy, the expansion of international trade across entire East Asia played the role to partially mitigate the restricted trade policy adhered to by Ming from the early years since its foundation in 1567. The trade of each country with Ming sometimes took even the form of smuggling or plunder, which was not the tyranny committed independently by private organizations. It was a form of trade in which governmental power was involved in order to gain the profits from the trade with Ming. Joseon was not an exception in terms of the increased productivity, consequent increase in purchase power and the expansion of silver distribution. Joseon was acknowledged as a 'courteous country(禮義之國)' by Ming and consequently free from its inspection network. For this reason, Joseon was privileged to trade more freely than other tributary countries. Under this environment, the action of 'Limited Access besides Okhagwan(玉河館)' was caused by the excessively strict response of Joseon translator to the purchase of government-published books by Ming. However, as the trade activities of Joseon merchants were restricted by this action, some merchants of Ming used this situation to monopolize the trade with Joseon. Furthermore, they began to buy the Courtesy Department off to maintain their monopolistic privilege by sustaining the action of limited access. Due to the back-scratching relationship between government and merchant of Ming, the effort to appeal the unfairness of the action of limited access was not successful. However, the position and rationale of Joseon in responding to this event was quite different from those of other East Asian countries. The vassals asserted that the past privilege of free access had been granted to Joseon for Ming's acknowledgement of Joseon's courtesy and attributed the cause of the action of limited access to the loss of courtesy of Joseon which was in turn caused by the greedy private trade for wealth. The politicians who felt ashamed of the degraded treatment of Joseon due to private trade suggested that the private trade should be restricted more and even abolished. Under the condition at that time in which Neo-Confucianism was intensified, maintaining Joseon's national brand as a country of courtesy is more important than profits from the trade with Ming. As the socio-economical environment changes in the 16th century and the private trade with Ming was expanded in a full scale, the action of limited access which appeared during the period requiring reconsideration of past policy for private trade became a symbolic event in which private trade should be placed in the illegal domain. In other words, the dilemma of 'a country of courtesy' blocked the various considerations and the movement to change the position in private trade policy. Although The expansion of private trade was the needs of the times, Joseon government ignored it and put its efforts in controlling it with policy. However, while the private trade was not entirely prohibited even with such political efforts, restricting it within the illegal domain did not result in any benefit for both government and people but the situation in which very few privileged class and large wealthy merchants enjoyed huge benefits from it. Although the acknowledgement of 'a country of courtesy' by Ming was the cause for Joseon's freer trade than any other tributary countries, it was also the yoke which restricted Joseon in expanding private trade more actively. Joseon was the only country among tributary countries which placed private trade in the controlled domain, which was considered as a special trade form with Ming from the perspective of the East Asian trade ...

16세기 조선 대명對明 사행무역使行貿易의수입품과 그 전개양상

구도영 한국국학진흥원 2017 국학연구 Vol.0 No.34

Legitimate trade between Joseon and Ming was done by envoys dispatched to Ming (envoy trade) since the beginning of Joseon Dynasty. In this paper, Joseon envoy trade is examined the import patterns by the main imports such as water buffalo horn, medicinal stuff, book, and silk. First, prohibition was laid on the export of the material to make bow, water buffalo horn, from Ming to Joseon. But Joseon tried to secure military supplies as the smuggling trade, despite the water buffalo horn is limited to 200 per year in the 16th century. Second, medicinal stuffs were in short supply in the 15th century but, the expansion of imports of medicinal products in the 16th century led to the transit trade of re-exporting medicines to Japan. Third, there is well record of the imports status of the books as a tool for academic inquiry, and it was actively imported as the private trade. Fourth, silk is a major import of public and private trade but the discussion about silk import status remained as the luxury or elegance item. In addition, the envoy trade imports of the 16th century Joseon are cataloged and listed in this paper. 조선과 명明의 합법적인 무역은 국초 이래 명으로 파견되는 조선사행단, 즉 사행무역使行貿易을 통해 이루어졌다. 사행무역은 공무역과 사무역으로 구분되며, 본고에서는 공적‧사적 경로를 통해 수입된 조선의 주요 수입품 수우각水牛角‧약재‧서책‧사라능단 등을 물품별로 구분하여 그 수입양상을 검토하였다. 첫째 활을 만드는 재료인 수우각은 군수품이라는 특성상 명이 엄격하게 반출을 금지하였으나, 16세기에 조선은 연간 200대로 물량이 제한되어있는 공식 수입 경로 외에 밀무역을 재개하여 군수품 확보에 만전을 기하였다. 둘째, 의약품인 약재는 15세기 수급이 부족하였으나, 16세기 약재 수입량 확대로 일본에 약재를 재수출하는 중계무역이 이루어지기도 하였다. 셋째, 서책은 학문탐구의 도구라는 특성상 사대부들의 기록에 수입 여부가 가장 잘 남아있으며, 사무역에서 활발하게 수입되었다. 넷째, 사라능단은 공사무역의 주요수입품이었으나, 사치와 품격의 갈림길에서 수입 중단 논의와 제재 노력이 16세기 내내 지속되었다. 이 외에 16세기 조선에서 사행무역으로 수입한 물품들을 총목록화하였다.

중국 대학교 역사교재의 ‘조선시대 한중관계 및 문화’ 서술과 인식

구도영 동북아역사재단 2023 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.79

Recently, China is moving to nationalize not only middle and high school textbooks but also history textbooks used in universities. Therefore, this study aims to select three representative historical textbooks currently used by Chinese universities to examine the relationship between Korea and China and the cultural description of the Joseon Dynasty and to confirm their aspects. The first textbook to be analyzed is Main points of Chinese history(『中國史綱要』) compiled by Zen Bojian(剪伯贊). It is a history textbook that is widely adopted by Chinese universities today, including Peking University. It is China’s “National History” textbook, and the contents are concentrated in Chinese domestic history, so the only content about Joseon is the Imjin War(壬辰倭亂). Although it has been revised since it was compiled in the 1960s, the book does not contain the ‘North-east Historical Project of China(東北工程)’ style historical perception that has taken place in China since the 2000s. The second textbook to be analyzed is The ancient history of the world(『世界中古史』), which is used as a textbook for world history by various universities such as Beijing Normal University. This book is a world history textbook, but the content is close to European history. As for Asian countries, only Joseon, Japan, and Indian history are introduced, and the volume is very small. I am concerned that Chinese students will perceive world history as centered on European history. In this textbook, Korea-China relations during the Joseon Dynasty were all about the Imjin War. As for Joseon culture, we highly appreciate Hangeul, science, and medical technology, and there is no attempt to interpret Korean culture as China-centered, such as the “Chinese Culture Origination Theory” in recent Chinese academia. The third textbook to be analyzed is The ancient Chinese history (『中國古代史』) created by various local universities such as Hwadong Normal University and Shandong University, which are universities of education in Shanghai, China. It is a university association textbook near Shanghai, not Beijing, so it differs from other history textbooks in terms of content. It is also characterized by the fact that it contains more contents of exchanges with foreign countries than the textbook of The ancient history of the world(『世界中古史』), and that the history of cultural exchange is composed of a separate table of contents. In the section explaining the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, the Japanese emperor’s name is written with the Chinese emperor, and the name of the war called by the Japanese academic community is also mentioned. In this book, I am concerned that the relationship between Joseon and the Qing Dynasty was defined as a ‘Zongfan(宗藩) relationship’, not a tribute relationship. In short, Chinese university textbooks were written in the early and mid-2000s, and there is no such content as the ‘the theory of cultural origin(文化起源論)’ of Chinese academia, and the contents of Korea-China relations during the Joseon Dynasty are concentrated in the Imjin War. Recently, research on the history of the Joseon Dynasty and cultural history has been rapidly increasing in Chinese academia, so it is necessary to track how Chinese history textbooks will describe Korean culture in the future. 최근 중국은 중고등학교 교과서에서 나아가 대학교에서 사용하는 역사교재도 국정화하려는 움직임을 보이고 있다. 이에 본 연구는 현재 중국 대학교에서 활용하는 대표적인 역사교재 3가지를 선정하여, 조선시대 한중관계와 문화 서술을 살펴보고 그 양상을 확인하고자 한다. 첫 번째 분석 대상 교재는 젠보짠(剪伯贊) 주편 『중국사강요』이다. 북경대를 비롯해 현재 중국 대학에서 가장 많이 활용하는 역사교재이다. 중국의 ‘국사’ 교재로, 중국 국내사에 내용이 집중되어 있어 조선에 대한 내용은 임진왜란뿐이다. 1960년대 편찬된 이후 개정되기는 했으나 젠보짠이 만든 마르크스주의적 시각이 관철되어 있어, 2000년대 이후 중국에서 벌어진 동북공정식 역사 인식은 보이지 않는다. 두 번째 분석 대상 교재는 북경사범대학 등 여러 대학에서 세계사 교재로 활용하는 『세계중고사』이다. 이 책은 세계사 교재이지만, 내용은 유럽사에 가깝다. 아시아는 조선, 일본, 인도사만 소개되고 있으며 분량도 매우 적다. 세계사를 유럽사 중심으로 인식할 가능성이 커 보인다. 조선시대 한중관계는 임진왜란이 전부이고, 조선문화에 대해서는 한글, 과학, 의학 기술을 높이 평가하며, 최근 중국학계에서 보이는 ‘중국문화 기원론’과 같이 한국문화를 중국 중심으로 해석하려는 모습이 보이지 않는다. 세 번째 분석 대상 교재는 중국 상해의 사범대학인 화동사범대학교, 산동대학교 등의 여러 지방대학이 연합해서 만든 『중국고대사』이다. 북경이 아닌 상해 인근 대학 연합 교재여서 앞서 분석한 역사교재와 내용 면에서 차이가 있다. 앞서 『세계중고사』보다 외국들과의 교류 내용이 더 많고, 문화교류사를 별도의 목차로 구성하고 있다는 점도 특기할 만하다. 임진왜란 편에서 일본 천황 연호를 중국 황제와 병기하고, 일본학계에서 부르는 전쟁명을 별도로 언급한 것도 다른 교재들과 차별적이다. 조선과 청과의 관계를 조공관계가 아니라 ‘종번(宗藩)관계’라고 정의한 것은 우려되는 부분이다. 요컨대 중국 대학 교재가 2000년대 초중반 집필되어 최근 중국학계의 ‘문화 원조론’과 같은 내용은 없으며, 조선시대 한중관계에 대한 내용은 임진왜란에 집중되어 있다. 최근 중국학계에서 조선시대사와 문화사 연구가 급증하고 있으니, 향후 중국의 역사교재에서 한국문화가 어떻게 서술될지 관심을 기울여야 할 것이다.

15세기 중국에서 유행한 조선의 마미군 패션, 그 문화적 변용에 대하여

구도영 수선사학회 2022 史林 Vol.- No.80

The shape of the skirts of Chosŏn women was a dressy and wide throughout the Chosŏn Dynasty. So, there was a device to maintain the volume of the skirt. Usually several layers of undergarments were worn, which served as support for the skirt to look fuller. In the Chosŏn Dynasty, women's underwear not only played a sanitary role, but was also a part of fashion. At that time, women had to wear several layers of underwear under their skirts to follow the fashion of Chosŏn. A lot of fabric is needed, and these fabrics aren't cheap either. In Cheju Island(濟州島), agriculture was not developed, making it difficult to produce textiles, so they had to go to land cities by boat to purchase them. Cheju people wanted to find a more economical way, and that was mamigun(馬尾裙). In Cheju Island, it was more economical to wear a petticoat made of horsehair than to wear multiple layers of underwear when trying to create the effect of making a skirt look dressy. On land in Chosŏn, cotton fabrics are cheaper, but in Cheju Island, it is difficult to find fabrics, but horsehair was easy to find. In the end, Cheju's economic environment changed the materials of clothing. Mamigun was ‘the product of cultural transformation’ that followed the fashion of Chosŏn and replaced the material with horsehair, common in Cheju, instead of textiles. Mamigun, born in Cheju in the 15th century, was a unique 'petticoat' in that an underskirt was made of horsehair. In the West(西歐), the petticoat made from horsehair, crinoline, was also popular in the 19th century. Horsehair was used as a material for petticoats for women's dresses in both East and West. The mamigun, born in Cheju, was transmitted to the 'Jiangnan(江南)' region of Ming through maritime trade in the 15th century, and became very popular in the the Jiangnan area of Ming dynasty. Through mamigun, it is possible to confirm the existence of 'horsehair', which was used as a petticoat material in both East and West, as well as the new material and shape of clothes on Cheju Island, the change of culture within Chosŏn, the history of wide cultural exchange between Chosŏn and the Ming dynasty. .

인삼은 어떻게 ‘한국’의 상징이 되었을까 -이철성, 『작지만 큰 한국사, 인삼』(푸른역사, 2022)-

구도영 이화여자대학교 한국문화연구원 2023 한국문화연구 Vol.44 No.-

중종대 사대인식(事大認識)의 변화 - 대례의(大禮議)에 대한 별행(別行) 파견 논의를 중심으로 -

구도영 한국역사연구회 2006 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.62

Changes regarding ‘Perception of Sadae’(事大認識) that became apparent during the reign of King Jungjong- Examination of Discussions over the issue of dispatching a special envoy(別行) about the Grand ceremony(大禮議) in Ming(明) dynasty’s court -

중국의 ‘한국문화 원조’ 주장과 최근 한국문화사 연구 동향

구도영 수선사학회 2024 史林 Vol.- No.88

. This paper briefly examines the background and phenomena of the recent escalation of cultural conflicts between Korea and China. It then proceeds to explore recent trends in Korean historical research within the Chinese academic community, aiming to gain a deeper understanding of the ongoing cultural conflicts. The claim that Korean culture originated in China gained momentum around 2020 and can be observed across various sectors of China's popular culture industry such as Chinese YouTube and online gaming platforms. Even on China's representative portal site Baidu, content suggesting that kimchi(김치) and hanbok(한복) originated in China can be found. However, this claim lacks proper historical evidence, and the practice of using Korean imagery while explaining Chinese culture should be rectified. Furthermore, there was controversy during the opening ceremony of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics when ‘ethnic Koreans’(조선족) wore hanbok. The hanbok worn by ethnic Koreans at that time was a commercialized version popular among tourists in Korean tourist sites since the 2010s. Present-day Korean hanbok reflects the beauty of the Chosŏn hanbok chosen and pursued by 21st-century South Korea. Anyone can wear this hanbok. However, it is not appropriate to promote the hanbok fashion, which was utilized as a tourism product from 2000s Korea, as the “cultural identity of Chinese ethnic minorities” in such a politically charged venue as the Olympic opening ceremony. Examining the trends in Korean historical research within the Chinese academic community since 2020 in chronological order, it can be seen that there has been a significant output of research results focusing on the Chosŏn and Koryŏ(고려) dynasties. This contrasts with the early 2000s when research on ancient Korean history, including Koguryŏ(고구려), received much attention. A closer examination of research trends reveals that cultural studies dominate. The topics range widely, including Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism, various systems of education and governance, literature, Hangul, Chinese characters culture, calligraphy, medicine, traditional clothing, dance, court music, painting, martial arts, tea culture, Koryŏ celadon, Academies(서원), and Chusŏk(秋夕, Korean Thanksgiving). Moreover, many of these research contents suggest that Korean culture originated from Chinese culture and has been strongly influenced by it. Such studies in China saw a significant increase around 2020. However, due to the evolving nature of research trends, continuous monitoring is necessary. Such research in China has been based on the perception that independent cultural developments in various regions are denied, and a superior central culture spreads to the periphery. However, it has been confirmed that even cultures understood as “original” are mixed and fused. Cultural relativism, the notion that cultures cannot be hierarchically ranked, has been deepened through nearly a century of academic discussion. Modern China is now emphasizing Korea as the origin of its culture, based on an outdated perspective that needs to be overcome. However, China is not a society that has been isolated from external influences, but has historically embraced a diverse range of foreign cultures, resulting in a blended “hybrid culture.” Excessive emphasis on China's cultural origins may, in fact, diminish the diversity of Chinese culture and undermine its cultural inclusivity. Encounters between cultural entities can remain purely collective or progress to a stage of new creation. There appears to be a greater need for attention to the many creative endeavors that have enriched human culture by accommodating and reinterpreting cultures of the past.

중국이 주장하는 ‘문화원조’의 배경과 문제점

구도영 동북아역사재단 2021 동북아역사리포트 Vol.- No.6