Romance, Bildungsroman, and the Science of Man: William Godwin's St. Leon: A Tale of the Sixteenth Century

이성범 19세기영어권문학회 2010 19세기 영어권 문학 Vol.14 No.1

This essay aims to trace the revisionary history of romance ranging from chivalric romance to the bildungsroman. Chivalric romance becomes a dominant narrative form that represents the diverse variations of medieval romance with the passing of the High Middle Ages. Unlike heroic epic throwing martial heroism into relief, this genre creates its own genetic identity by gradually highlighting high ideals and love of an illustrious knight. Yet it undergoes a serious change with the rise of the early modern and modern periods. Many contemporary writers make great efforts to modernize romance to exhibit modern manners and lives. They attempt to bring together the high life of romance and the low life of the novel. It turns out that romance gets novelized and novel gets ennobled. By make an anthropological turn of romance into a scrutiny of human nature, modern romance reformers like William Godwin complete this novelization of romance. In his famous essay "Of History and Romance," (1797) Godwin argues that a true romance writer should study the "individual history" of human character. A new romance should pursue personal transformations through which an individual should aspire for republican ideal, he claims. His genetic revision is thus characterized by the radical humanization/internalization of romance. It follows that Godwinian romance turns into what later generations term bildungsroman. Godwin's work St. Leon: A Tale of the Sixteenth Century (1799) exemplifies the modern refitting of romance into the bildungsroman. Although the time setting of the story is the sixteenth century, French nobleman Count Reginald de St. Leon, the title character of the story, changes his own identity from an aristocrat exerting chivalric knighthood at war through a gambler showing off aristocratic bounty at table and ultimately to a republican liberalist. Here the noble adventures of a chivalric knight turns into the novel adventures of a modern enlightener. Characterological transformations of the hero correspond to the genetic incorporation of romance into the bildungsroman plot. This self-transformative unfolding of romance consequently produces overdetermined textuaity; the narrative grammar for the education of formation domineers over the textual functions of other literary forms within the text of St. Leon. Godwin's modernization of romance as a study of an individual is particularly oriented toward his scientific perusal of a system of prejudiced thoughts. He senses that political influence in modern society becomes actualized through human consciousness. With this motivation worthy of notice, he strives for the systematic knowledge of ideological biases.

Romance, Bildungsroman, and the Science of Man

Sungbum Lee 19세기영어권문학회 2010 19세기 영어권 문학 Vol.14 No.1

This essay aims to trace the revisionary history of romance ranging from chivalric romance to the bildungsroman. Chivalric romance becomes a dominant narrative form that represents the diverse variations of medieval romance with the passing of the High Middle Ages. Unlike heroic epic throwing martial heroism into relief, this genre creates its own genetic identity by gradually highlighting high ideals and love of an illustrious knight. Yet it undergoes a serious change with the rise of the early modern and modern periods. Many contemporary writers make great efforts to modernize romance to exhibit modern manners and lives. They attempt to bring together the high life of romance and the low life of the novel. It turns out that romance gets novelized and novel gets ennobled. By make an anthropological turn of romance into a scrutiny of human nature, modern romance reformers like William Godwin complete this novelization of romance. In his famous essay "Of History and Romance," (1797) Godwin argues that a true romance writer should study the "individual history" of human character. A new romance should pursue personal transformations through which an individual should aspire for republican ideal, he claims. His genetic revision is thus characterized by the radical humanization/internalization of romance. It follows that Godwinian romance turns into what later generations term bildungsroman. Godwin's work St. Leon: A Tale of the Sixteenth Century (1799) exemplifies the modern refitting of romance into the bildungsroman. Although the time setting of the story is the sixteenth century, French nobleman Count Reginald de St. Leon, the title character of the story, changes his own identity from an aristocrat exerting chivalric knighthood at war through a gambler showing off aristocratic bounty at table and ultimately to a republican liberalist. Here the noble adventures of a chivalric knight turns into the novel adventures of a modern enlightener. Characterological transformations of the hero correspond to the genetic incorporation of romance into the bildungsroman plot. This self-transformative unfolding of romance consequently produces overdetermined textuaity; the narrative grammar for the education of formation domineers over the textual functions of other literary forms within the text of St. Leon. Godwin's modernization of romance as a study of an individual is particularly oriented toward his scientific perusal of a system of prejudiced thoughts. He senses that political influence in modern society becomes actualized through human consciousness. With this motivation worthy of notice, he strives for the systematic knowledge of ideological biases.

古典小說에 나타난 謫降話素의 起源探索

김진영(Jin-young, Kim) 어문연구학회 2010 어문연구 Vol.64 No.-

This thesis is studied about the origin of advent in Korean romance. First, the advent of korean romance is typed, and looked into advent of literature genre ahead of the korean romance. And then it is considered what the origin of advent of korean romance was. To sum up it is summarized like this. First It is confirmed the condition of advent in korean romance. The situation of work using the advent is examined and typed some cases. As the result, the work having every facts of treating advent is a archetype that reflected divine and transcendency largely. And the work that strengthened rationality and excluded nonrealistic or fantastic contents is a after ages work comparatively. Second It is revealed about tradition of advent classified by literature genre. So among the literature genre be ahead of korean romance, foundation myth and Buddhism narrative are discussed. As a result of discussion, the advent of foundation myth is different from that of korean romance. It is the same that northern myth and southern myth. But Buddhism narrative is conformed various advent earlier than korean romance. Especially advent dream that one is going to get pregnant or advent situation, miracle of birth time or assistant after birth etc. are the same as that of korean romance. Third It is searched the origin of advent in korean romance. The advent of korean romance is different from that of foundation myth, but is much the same the Buddhism narrative made and spreaded last years of korea and the beginning of choseon intensively. On the bases of this, the origin of advent in korean romance is considered as the Buddhism narrative that revealed Buddhism point of view variously. As it is succeeded to Buddhism point of view as it is, the ideology of other religion acceptance for example that time's society thought, Taoism or popular faith is confirmed the advent.

순정만화의 장르 세분화 필요성에 관한 연구

이선영(Seon Young Lee),이승진(Seung Jin Lee) 한국애니메이션학회 2015 애니메이션연구 Vol.11 No.5

순정만화는 국내에서 특화 된 만화 장르로 높은 선호도를 보이고 있다. 그러나 다양성이 무시 된 획일화 된 장르로 남자와 여자의 로맨스가 나타나면 스토리의 주제나 소재에 상관없이 순정만화로 편입되고 있는 실정이다. 만화의 장르는 시대에 따른 관습의 체계로 시대에 따라 변모할 수 있다고 주장한다. 하지만 순정만화는 오랜 시간 동안 남자와 여자의 로맨스로 고착되어 있다. 게다가 순정만화 장르는 여성이 보는 만화라는 선입관까지 작용하며 융합된 장르의 장르 다양성이 무시되고 있다. 이러한 점은 순정만화에 대한 선입관을 작용시키며 진부한 스토리를 예상하게 하고, 소재의 창의성을 간과하는 부정적 영향이 나타나게 된다. 때문에 단순히 순정장르로 칭하는 것보다 복수적 개념을 분석하여 순정만화 장르의 혼용과 변용 가능성에 대해 제시해야 한다. 최근 드라마로 제작 된 〈밤을 걷는 선비〉는 순정만화로 구분되는데 뱀파이어라는 독특한 소재가 나타나기 때문에 판타지 장르로 편입이 가능하다. 이러한 장르 세분화는 순정만화가 갖고 있는 장르 유연성의 가치를 제고하게 할 뿐만 아니라 장르의 서스펜스를 형성하여 소비자로 하여금 기대감을 높이게 한다. 순정만화는 오래된 관습의 체계로 순정만화라는 장르적 안정성을 보장 받을 수 있다. 하지만 획일화 된 장르라는 이해관계의 불일치는 장르 다양성이 무시되는 현상이 낳고 있기 때문에 로맨스를 기반으로 혼합 된 장르를 구분 짓는 연구가 무엇보다 필요하다. The romance comics are preferred by many people as a specialized comic book genre in Korea. As a standardized genre with no diversity, once the romance between a man and a woman shows, it belongs to the romance comics regardless of the subject or material of the story. It is argued that the comic genre can be changed in accordance with the period as a system of custom. However, the romance comics have set in as a romance between a man and a woman for a long time. Moreover, the romance comic genre has no diversity because of the prejudice in which the romance comics are loved by women. In this aspect, the prejudice against the romance comics makes it possible to anticipate the stereotyped story, and also the negative influence overlooking the creativity of material is shown. Therefore, the possibility of the combined/transformed application of the romance comics should be shown by analyzing the plural concepts, instead of simply naming them the romance comics. The subdivision of the genre not only improves the value of the genre flexibility, but also forms the suspense of the genre, so that it raises consumers’ expectation. As an old system of custom, the romance comics can get guaranteed the genre stability. Since the discordance of interest as a standardized genre is caused by the ignorance of the genre diversity, however, it would be necessary to research to divide the mixed genres based on romance.

여성 주체성의 역사 발굴하기 - 이정옥의 『로맨스라는 환상』에 대하여

이주라 대중서사학회 2023 대중서사연구 Vol.29 No.1

Lee Jung-ok's The Illusion of Romance (moonji, 2022) is a book that examines the syntactic flow of the women’s taste reading market, the patterns of intimate relationships there, and the formation of women's identity through the romance genre. This book is largely divided into three parts. It was largely constructed according to the diachronic flow. The first part deals with medieval, second part modern, and third part modern romance. The biggest advantage of this book is that it extends the history of romance to the Middle Ages. This is a point that is different from other studies that have usually presented only the historical flow of modern and contemporary romance. This book starts with chivalry romance, which began in medieval France, and goes through the fateful and tragic love of the romantic era, embodies the romantic utopia of modern women, and examines the process of commercializing romance. This book is more interested in the narrative construction of female identity represented by the genre of romance than in the genre of romance itself. And the main point is to interpret women’s narratives from a female perspective. Therefore, it helps to critically approach the representative works of romance accumulated so far, philosophy, sociological theory, and literary theory about love from a female perspective. This allows the reader to experience amazing moments when he or she realizes the gender bias he or she unconsciously had. 이정옥의 『로맨스라는 환상』(문학과지성사, 2022)은 로맨스 장르를 통해 여성 취향 독서 시장의 통시적 흐름과 거기에서 나타나는 친밀한 관계의 변화 양상 그리고 여성 주체성의 형성 과정을 살펴보는 저서이다. 이 책은 크게 3부분으로 나뉜다. 대체로 통시적 흐름에 따라 구성되었다. 1부는 중세, 2부는 근대, 3부는 현대의 로맨스를 다루고 있다. 이 책의 가장 큰 장점은 로맨스의 역사를 중세까지 확장해서 파악하고 있다는 점이다. 이는 보통 근대와 현대 로맨스의 역사적 흐름만을 제시해 왔던 다른 연구들과 차별화되는 지점이다. 이 책은 중세 프랑스에서 시작되었던 기사도 로맨스부터 시작하여, 낭만주의 시대의 운명적이며 비극적인 사랑을 거쳐, 근대 여성의 낭만주의 유토피아를 구현하며 로맨스가 상품화되는 과정까지 살피고 있다. 이 책은 로맨스 장르 자체에 대한 관심보다는 로맨스라는 장르로 대표되는 여성 정체성의 서사적 구축에 더욱 관심이 많다. 그리고 여성의 서사를 여성적 관점으로 해석하는 것이 중심이다. 그렇기 때문에 지금까지 축적된 로맨스의 대표작들이나 사랑에 관한 철학과 사회학 이론 그리고 문학 이론을 여성적 관점을 통해 비판적으로 접근할 수 있게 도와준다. 이를 통해 독자가 자신이 무의식적으로 가지고 있었던 젠더적 편견을 깨닫는 놀라운 순간들을 경험할 수 있게 한다.

임철우 소설의 가족 로망스 —1980년대 소설을 중심으로

김주언 한국문학이론과비평학회 2011 한국문학이론과 비평 Vol.51 No.-

This study, explores a family romance of Lim Chul-woo's novel, starts from a reflective introspection of the concept of a ‘family romance’. Lim Chul-woo's novels show various versions of family romance, with these versions forming a consistent feature of his works. Hence, looking into family romance would also be the work of tracing an essential aspect of transition in Lim Chul-woo’s novel. In particular, the family romance of Lim Chul-woo's novel needs to be reflected from a perspective in which the family romance’s imaginary formation is categorized as being either an foundling or bastard type. The trauma that stimulates Lim Chul-woo's narrative impulse is that of an orphan consciousness; at the time of debut, the orphan appears as the main character in the Lim Chul-woo's early works. The matter of the father’s absence then has to somehow be overcome in the formation of the orphan’s narrative. In the family romance, the orphan often appears as the main character a neither one-time nor coincidental occurrence in Lim Chul-woo’s narrative world. This matter repeatedly appears as a narrative pattern. In addition, the question then arises as to why an orphan appears as the main character in these narratives. Lim Chul-woo's family romance would like to answer this question based on a context from our modern history. At the bottom of his novel has been presented as a tragedy in modern Korean history, by referencing the Korean War in 1950 and the 5.18 Gwangju Uprising in 1980. According to Lim Chul-woo's family romance, the main point of these two tragic events would be the myth that the father has disappeared and been replaced with a bogus father; in other words, the 'ideology’, as well as the myth of 'power'. Although Lim Chul-woo's family romance adopts a being an foundling who never fights or resists, it can also be considered as an imaginary formation in attempting to become a bastard groping in the dark by refusing to surrender to an 'imaginary father'.

호손의 글쓰기 전략

김지원(Kim Ji-Won) 새한영어영문학회 2010 새한영어영문학 Vol.52 No.1

In a series of prefaces, Nathaniel Hawthorne tries to offer a particular conception of ‘romance’ by which he would put the reader into “a neutral territory, somewhere between the real world and fairy-land.” Hawthorne finds that neutral ground in the distant past. The seventeenth-century Boston he chooses to write about is a community that recognizes no clear line between “the Actual and the Imaginary.” For Hawthorne, the pastness of the past, because of its sheer force of temporal and spatial distance, could become a rich, imaginative breeding ground for his theory of romance. In “The Custom-House,” a long prefatory essay to The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne begins to formulate his famous theory of romance. In the first place, he assumes a basic division of reality upon which literature should be based into the actual, on the one hand, and the imaginary, on the other. He suggests that life seen in the sunlight is the stuff of the novel, while the familiar seen in the moonlight and warmed slightly by the firelight is the stuff of the romance. Hawthorne believes that romance, unlike the novel, does not have to restrict itself to the probable. In the prefaces to other major romances, Hawthorne also tends primarily to distinguish between the novel and romance. In the brief preface to The House of the Seven Gables, Hawthorne claims the latitude of the romancer without adhering to the “minute fidelity” required by the novel. It is the freedom in order to treat how history lives on into the present. With The Blithedale Romance and The Marble Faun Hawthorne seeks to write fiction based explicitly on his personal experience. His months at Brook Farm provide the setting of the former tale, much as the family’s stay in Italy is worked into the latter. In the prefaces of both romances, Hawthorne suggests his experimentation with artifice going on among modern, anti-realist writers. It is the faculty of imagination which transmutes the raw material of reality into the finished product of art. Finally, the prefaces to Hawthorne’s major works are designed to establish this imaginative locale. So long as the romance is true to what is called the truth of the human heart, it has every right to mingle the marvelous and the actual. While the novelist who, like the historian tied down to the requirements of a rigid adherence to facts, presents only the particular, the romancer who, like the poet, can modify facts and fashion them into meaningful patterns, is able to present the universal.

조선시대 애정소설에 나타난 사랑과 성

김지영(Kim Jee young) 한국고전여성문학회 2005 한국고전여성문학연구 Vol.0 No.10

이 논문은 조선시대 애정소설의 문학적 관습을 분석함으로써 당시의 애정관과 애정소설의 문화적 기능에 대해 추론하고 있다. '사랑'이라는 것은 시대와 장소에 따라 발견되는 방식과 절차가 다르고 그 안에 담긴 연인들의 이상과 좌절 역시 독특한 특징을 가질 만큼 문화적이고 역사적인 속성을 가지고 있다. 조선시대의 애정소설은 애정전기류에서 파생되어 전기적이면서 환상적인 요소를 보여주고 있지만, 점차 현실의 문제를 반영하며 남녀들의 사랑이 성장하기 어려웠던 조건을 보여주기에 이른다. 이 논문에서는 사랑에 대한 당대의 감각적, 문화적 맥락을 복원하고 비유적 표현과 애정시라는 담화 양식의 활용 방식을 살펴봄으로써 조선시대 애정소설에서 발견되는 고급한 문학으로서의 관습적 빗장을 풀고 조선시대 애정 이야기의 특징을 좀더 쉽게 풀어내보고자 했다. 조선시대 애정소설에서 남녀의 첫 만남부터 성애가 이루어지기까지 걸리는 시간, 만남의 장소, 연애과정과 시련, 이루어지지 않은 사랑의 비극적인 결과 등, 사랑의 세부 장면들을 자세히 들여다보면, 우리는 거기에서 일정한 사랑의 시나리오를 읽을 수 있다. 거리에서 만난 한 여인에게 반하여 한 달간 여인의 방밖에서 밤을 지새우는 서생, 양가집 담을 넘어 들어가 깊은 규방에 감춰져 있는 처녀를 멋들어진 시 한 수로 유혹하는 남성, 귀신이 되어서도 배필을 만나 운우지락을 이룰 것을 부처님께 탄원하는 여귀, 이웃집 선비에게 연정을 품다가 못 참고 한밤중에 그의 처소에 뛰어든 처녀 등의 생동하는 인물들, 이들이 주고받는 시속에 나오는 인물들과 관련된 고사가 압축하고 있는 장면들, 남녀의 감정을 표현하는 데 자주 사용된 사물이나 배경들, 애인들이 마음속에 품고 있는 이상적인 커플과 그들의 사랑이 규정되는 방식과 인용 상황들, 애정소설에서 사라진 혹은 억압되어 감추어진 관습과 그 의미 등이 이 논문에서 분석하고자 한 구체적인 대상이다. 여기서 우리는 사랑에 얽힌 당대의 여러 관습들을 추론해 볼 수 있다. 여기에는 실제적인 관습도 있겠지만 문학적인 관습이라 해야 할 것들이 더 많다. 조선시대 애정소설은 남녀의 사랑이나 성역할을 다르게 규정함으로써 일정한 패턴의 사랑 이야기를 만들고 있는 것이다. 하지만 특수한 사랑이야기에는 사랑에 대한 당대의 관습이 반영되어 있기 마련이다. 첫눈에 사랑에 빠진 남녀가 현실의 제약 조건들을 극복해가는 과정은 남녀 모두에게 결코 쉽지 않은 과정이었다. 애정소설에 동원된 여러 가지 고사와 비유적 표현들은 그러한 그들의 고민과 원망을 담은 채 낭만적 사랑의 관습을 이어가고 있다. 하지만 그 위에서도 현실과 문학의 상관관계를 살펴볼 수 있다. 남녀의 사랑에 초점을 맞추기 위해 '후사 잇기'라는 서사적 패턴을 과감히 생략하고 성애에 대해 이야기할 자리를 마련할 수 있었지만 사랑의 육체적 측면보다는 정신적 측면을 먼저 강조함으로써 사랑을 고상한 것으로 표현했다. 그 이유는 당대의 독서 관습에서 찾아볼 수 있다. 교훈적인 독법을 강조하는 조선시대 유교적 관습은 애정소설의 독법 역시 일정 정도 제한하고 있었다. 흔히 애정소설은 '음란'한 것으로 치부되면서도 교훈적인 효과를 거둘 수도 있다고 생각되었는데, 이러한 이중적인 독서 태도는 애정소설을 교훈적으로 읽는 독특한 방식을 마련하게 된다. 애정 소설에 흔히 표현된 '기이'라든가 '허망함', '망연자실' 등의 감상은 애정소설에 표현된 사랑이 현실에서는 이루기 어려운 것임을 깨달을 수밖에 없었던 당대의 독서 관습이 작품 속에 그대로 반영됨을 보여주고 있다. 말하자면 조선시대 애정소설은 사랑의 실패로 인한 허망함과 인생의 씁쓸함을 느끼게 해주는 특수한 '감정교육'의 역할을 했다고 생각해볼 수 있는 것이다. 이것은 일종의 상징적 차원에서 제안한 것이지만 애정소설이 씌어지고 읽혀졌던 나름의 특수한 문학적 맥락을 추정해 보는 노력의 일환이 될 수 있을 것이다. The purpose of this study is to elucidate the cultural function and literary convention of romance in Chosŭn. There were many pieces of romance which were written by men literati; they were of noble extraction and highly educated, but most of them couldn't have a chance to go into politics. Those romances were in general considered that they were influenced by their writers' class and desire. The theme of love that is pointed up in romances is, however, not able to be appropriated only by men or women, and I think that the given interpretations are resulted from somewhat a male-oriented perspective. Romances of Chosŭn offer diverse sources for past ways of loving and enable us to see lovers in years past and to shape the ways of love in their time. The way of representation for love and sexuality in a romance is fraught with several kinds of interferences of main discourse at those days. In this sense, love and sexuality of romances should be interpreted in the appropriate historical contexts and signified to retrieve the relationship and sexual politics between men and women. Although when those romances were at first written by men literati, they might be high quality literature. In fact, however, they were actually marginal texts in the Confucius tradition and incorporated with other novels in many narrative aspects. Those romances had been influenced and generated by Liu-chao(六朝)'s Zhi-guai(志怪) and Tang(唐)'s Chuan-qi(傳奇), which were characterized by weird and uncanny things, but they were getting close to reality, and in turn rendered the social world and historical context of the relationship. Love and sexuality represented in romances, however, isn't equivalent to the reality and we should be careful to the literary convention of romance developed in correlation with reality. In most of romances, we can see the discrimination, of the character of women's love from men's love. Love of women is a romantic love; when the spring comes and the autumn ripens, heroine of romance laments her own lot and indulges in reverie. Her love comes from the incorporation of reality and fantasy. Love of men, on the contrary, is a passionate love; hero of romance is fascinated by attraction and beauty of women, and steals into her abode to make a sexual relationship with her. However, love of men is more obscure than women's because romance is rendered not by the view of women but by the perspective of men. Love in romance, as a rule, can be said a romantic love in the sense that it makes compromise with the society in the problem of system of wedding. The resources of passionate love are concealed by metaphors accompanying clichés consisted of historical and canonical events. While this means that romances of Chosŭn have structural weaknesses and fragilities, instead, we can find through them some of the desire, the anxiety and ideal couples which people of Chosŭn had cherished. Following this axis, love stories have their own typical love scenario from beginning to end of love. When we speculate on the modes of love in romances, we can find which is received and which is rejected in romances. It is wedding and chastity of women that they receive, but it is the obligation of descending that they reject. In a patriarchal and Confucian society, love and sexuality are separate from each other, wedding and sexuality are directly combined. In this cultural background, it is difficult to find any erotic view in the relation of men and women. Romances of Chosŭn, therefore, obliterate the cliché of 'descending' that is the introductory part in other different kinds of novels and, are able to make enough room to narrate love and sexuality. However, it is not easy to grasp the way of representing the relationship between love and sexuality in Chosŭn romances. Romances represent love and sexuality as lofty one by poem of love and in tradition of instructive reading since negative evaluat

<삼국지연의>를 보는 두 개의 시각 -한국에서의 傳統的(전통적) 大義論(대의론)과 일본에서의 武士的(무사적) 忠義論(충의론)-

이은봉 ( Eun Bong Lee ) 한국고소설학회 2013 古小說 硏究 Vol.35 No.-

한국과 일본이 <삼국지연의>를 수용하던 초기에는 역사 구연물이주는 역사성과 주자학의 대의론 혹은 군신론 등 성리학적 정통론의 영향을 받아 소설임에도 불구하고 역사서와 구별을 안 했거나 혼동해서 읽었다. 하지만 한국은 중국과의 관계 속에서 촉한에 대한 정통론적 대의명분을 직접 내세웠고, 일본은 한국과는 달리 남북조시대를 바라보는 자신들의 역사 정통론과 쇼군이 지배하는 막부 정권의 지배 이념을 공고히 하는 데 <삼국지연의>를 활용하면서부터 차이를 보이기 시작했다. 한국은 상업출판이 성행하는 18세기 후반부터 경제적 여건상 거질의 한글 번역본 <삼국지연의>를 모두 판각할 수 없자 인기 있는 부분만 따로 떼어 새로운 이야기를 첨가해 기존의 <삼국지연의>와는 전혀 다른 삼국의 이야기를 만들었다. 때문에 수용초기보다는 교화적 측면이 약화되고 오락성이 강조되기도 했지만 <삼국지연의>가 주는 정통론적 대의명분은 계속해서 유지했다. 이러한 ‘전통적대의론’이 유지될 수 있었던 이유는 중국과 잇닿은 지리적 여건상중국의 정치 문화적 영향을 직접 받아야 했으며, 더 큰 이유는 성리학이라는 국가 이데올로기가 <삼국지연의>의 주제의식과 맞았기때문이다. 이에 반하여 일본은 <삼국지연의>가 일본어로 번역되면서부터 일본의 역사 정통과 군기 문화 등의 영향으로 일본풍이 가미되었고, 전통 연극인 가부키나 조루리로 공연되면서 정통론적 대의명분보다는 무사적 충의가 강조되었다. 특히, 일본의 대표적 조루리 작가로 알려진 지카마쓰 몬자에몬은 <삼국지연의>의 명장면들을 차용해 임금을 위한 충을 강조하였다. 게다가 <가나데혼 주신구라>의 작가로 알려진 다케다 이즈모는 지카마쓰와는 다르게 전체 내용을 <삼국지연의>로 구성하고 여기에 새로운 인물과 사건을 첨가해 독특한 이야기를 만들었다. 다케다는 이렇게 만들어진 이야기 속에 충의, 은애, 정녀 등의 유교적 도덕개념을 삽입해 완전히 새로운 일본풍의 <삼국지연의>를 창작해냈다. 이렇게 ‘무사적 충의론’이 만들어지게 된 이유는 당연히 에도시대 막부 정권의 자연스런 현상일 수도 있겠지만 당시 가부키나 조루리의 관객이 서민이었다는 것을 보면 막부 정권의 지배 이데올로기를 공고히 하기 위함이 더 컸을 것이다. Influenced by the historicity it possessed as a historical novel and the Confucian orthodoxy that appeared through the greater cause and the relationship between the lords and the retainers, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms (hereafter referred to as Romance) was often read indiscriminately with historical texts during the early period of its acceptance in Korea and Japan. However, Korea and Japan differed in their approaches to the Romance. While Korea set forth the orthodoxy and cause of the Kingdom of Shu Han based on its relationship with China, Japan used the Romance in order to solidify its historical view of the Southern and Northern Dynasties of China and ruling ideology of the shogunate. Since the late eighteenth century when commercial publication flourished, Korea started publishing newer versions of the Three Kingdoms narrative by selectively printing the popular part of the original Romance with the addition of new episodes. Although the commercial publication was flourishing in Korea, its economical condition limited the publishing huge volumes of the entire Korean translation of Romance. Hence, while the instructive aspects weakened and the entertaining aspects strengthened in comparison to the earlier versions, its orthodoxy and justification of cause continued to be maintained. Korea`s geographical proximity to China put Korea under the direct cultural and political influence of China and moreover, the theme of Romance was befitting to the Confucian ideology. On the contrary, in the process of translating Romance into Japanese, certain Japanese aspects were added, influenced by Japan`s historical tradition and military culture. Also, when it was performed in the form of traditional plays such as kabuki or joruri, allegiance as the warrior was emphasized over the orthodoxy or greater cause. Chikamatsu Monzaemon, the renowned playwright of joruri, appropriated the famous scenes from Romance and underscored the allegiance to the king. Moreover, Takeda Izumo who is known as the writer of Kanadehon Chushingura, unlike Chikamatsu, rearranged the entire narrative according to Romance, added new characters and events, and created a unique narrative. By inserting the concepts pertaining to Confucian ethics such as loyalty, love, virtuous woman, etc. into this narrative, he created a completely different version of Japanesy Romance. One might say that stressing the allegiance of the warrior was a natural process that took place in the Edo bakufu. Yet, taking into consideration that the audience of kabuki or joruri were mostly laymen, it could be seen as the attempt to solidify the ruling ideology of the shogunate.

한국에서 요시카와 에이지 <삼국지> 유행의 의미

이은봉 동아시아고대학회 2015 동아시아고대학 Vol.0 No.40

조선 후기 이미 <삼국지연의>가 한글로 번역되어 필사․방각본 형태로 유통되었고, 근대 초기 구활자본을 거쳐 신문과 잡지에 연재된 <삼국지연의>까지 숱한 <삼국지연의> 번역본이 있었음에도 불구하고 유독 요시카와 에이지 <삼국지>가 유행한 첫 번째 이유는 ‘가독성’ 때문이다. 근대 초에 번역된 <삼국지연의>들은 비록 쉬운 우리말 번역으로 한문 어투가 주는 난해함은 극복했다 하더라도 구성은 ‘모종강평본’을 그대로 따르고 있어, 이 이야기를 했다가 저 이야기를 하는 느낌을 주어 독자의 혼란을 더했다. 이는 같은 제목의 챕터에서도 시간과 공간의 연속성이 해체되어 있고, 소실점이 너무 다양하기 때문이다. 그런데 요시카와 에이지는 단일한 시점 즉, 원근법으로 <삼국지연의>를 재구성함으로 해서 깊이감을 더했다. 비록 전지적 작가 시점이긴 하지만 모든 사건을 주요 인물 중심으로 전개하는 ‘초점화’를 통해 전근대 소설이 주는 난삽함을 없앴다. 이렇게 ‘초점화’된 시선으로 이야기를 전개함으로 해서 독자는 작가의 눈을 통해 보는 것이 아니라 등장인물의 시선을 통해 사건을 인식하게 되었다. 그리고 두 번째 이유는 당연 ‘재미’ 때문이다. 원래 재미있었던 이야기에 원근법으로 깊이감을 더했으니 많은 사람들이 좋아하는 것은 당연했다. 그런데 요시카와 에이지는 <삼국지연의>에 없는 새로운 이야기를 첨가해 근대 독자를 사로잡았다. 그 대표적인 것이 시작 부분에 있는 ‘차 사건으로 만들어진 모험’과 ‘홍부용과의 로맨스’다. 이러한 모험과 로맨스는 근대 독자들이 서양의 소설을 통해 접했던 이야기와도 상통하는 것으로 근대 독자의 시선을 끌기에 충분했다. 또한 그는 전 근대소설이 가지는 불필요한 우연 혹은 기이한 이야기 등을 제거하거나 자신의 설명을 덧붙여 나름의 합리성을 확보했다. 왜냐하면 근대 교육을 받은 독자들에게 기적에 가까운 사건이나 미로처럼 얽혀 드는 서사는 리얼리티를 방해하는 요소였기 때문이다. 이처럼 요시카와 에이지 <삼국지>가 해방이후 우리나라에서 유행할 수 있었던 이유는 바로 여기에 있었다. 전근대 <삼국지연의>가 재미없어진 것이 아니라 인식의 변화로 인한 서사 배치에 문제가 생겼기 때문이다. Numerous versions of Korean translations could be found for Romance of the Three Kingdoms (hereinafter, Romance) during the late Joseon Period and the Early Modern Period. By the late Joseon Period, it had already been translated into Korean and circulated into transcribed forms or mill block-printed editions. A considerable number of translations ranging from the old printed editions to the ones serialized in newspapers and magazines in the Early Modern Period were also available. Nonetheless, the reason that Eiji Yoshikawa’s Romance was exceptionally popular in Korea was, first because of its “readability.” The readers who received modern education could no longer read traditional fiction, which could be perceived as a disarray of confusing narratives, such as the version with a commentary by Mao Zong Gang. What used to be entertaining had become complicated. The abstruseness of classical Chinese locution was in a form that the Korean readers felt could be overcome by the translation of Romance into Korean. However, the narrative structure continued to follow that of Mao Zong Gang’s commentary version, imparting a feeling that the story was all over the place causing confusion for the readers. This was because even in a chapter under the same title, the continuity of time and space was deconstructed and too many focal points existed within a story. Eiji Yoshikawa, however, reconstructed Romance through one viewpoint, or perspective, and added depth to the story. Although through an omniscient viewpoint, Yoshikawa brought in “focalization” to the narrative and let the events unfold around the central characters to do away with the confusion and disarray that existed in the pre-modern form of fiction. By developing the story through a “focalized” viewpoint, he enabled the readers to perceive the events through the eyes of the characters instead of the author. The second reason that Yoshikawa’s version of Romance enjoyed popularity, of course, is because it was “entertaining.” The original novel itself was entertaining and it was only natural that people were drawn into its narrative even more, as depth was added to the story by putting things in perspective. In addition, Eiji Yoshikawa captivated the readers by adding new stories to Romance. Two such examples are the “Adventure Triggered by the Tea Incident” and “The Romance with Hong Furong” that appear at the start. The aspect of adventure and romance was something with which the modern readers became familiar through Western novels, which, in turn, captured their attention. Yoshikawa also eliminated the unnecessary coincidences or bizarre episodes from Romance, which pre-modern fictions often entailed, or added his own explanation to secure some level of rationality. To the modern readers, events that verged on miracles or narratives that looked too much like a tangled maze were elements that disrupted the reality of the novel. As such, these are the reasons that Eiji Yoshikawa’s version of Romance could become popular in Korea after the country’s independence. It is not that Romance from the Pre-Modern Period was no longer interesting or fun to read, but that due to the change in people’s perception, its narrative structure has been called into question.