선택편의효과로 본 한국 노동시장의 성별 임금격차 의미: 차별은 개선되고 있는가

문지선,김난주 참여연대 2023 시민과세계 Vol.- No.43

This study analyzed the gender wage gap in 2017-2022 by ‘the Oaxaca-Blinder wage decomposition using the Heckman selection model’, utilizing industry and occupational classifications of Korea’s Regional Employment Survey, which covers all 21 industries in the Korean Classification. The Korean wage labor market had a larger real wage gap for all six years, but there was a negative selection bias effect in which the wage gap was suppressed by married women in their 30s. In particular, there were differences in ‘length of service’ and ‘company size’ by gender, but even if men and women were under the same conditions, more favorable compensation was given to men, which might be the reason for the larger ‘gender-discriminatory wage gap’. However in 2020, when COVID-19 was severe, the gender wage gap narrowed and selection bias was the lowest. Although the wage labor market shrank overall, the gender wage gap was alleviated as the poorer female wage workers were pushed out, not as the result of the improvement in the labor market discrimination. Moreover, after COVID-19, the gender wage gap rapidly increased in 2021 and the proportion of the coefficient effect also exceeded 60%, strengthening the ‘gender wage gap and gender wage discrimination’ altogether. In 2022, the gender wage gap and the proportion of the coefficient effect decreased, but the selection bias was the largest ever, so it was strongly influenced by the entry of certain groups into wage workers such as ‘highly educated married female workers in their 30s’. In addition, given that ‘gender-discriminatory wage gap’ has been increasing recently in 2021 and 2022, gender discrimination in the Korean wage labor market has not been relieved. Considering the underestimation of the ‘gender-discriminatory wage gap’ as well as gender wage gap, enduring gender wage discrimination, and the selection bias effect that has lessened this gender inequality, it is necessary to reform the gender-discriminatory wage compensation, practices, and evaluation. Especially, Policy intervention to address the career interruption of married women in their 30s is urgently needed.

기업 내 성별에 따른 임금 격차가 기업 성과에 미치는 영향

전성민(Jeon Sungmin),심재연(Sim Jaeyeon),허진숙(Heo Jinsuk) 한국국제회계학회 2020 국제회계연구 Vol.0 No.92

본 연구는 기업 내 성별에 따른 임금 격차가 기업의 성과에 미치는 영향을 분석한다. 여성의 교육 수준이 증가하고 사회 진출이 활발해짐에 따라 기업 내 여성 비중은 증가하고 있으나 실질적인 임금 격차는 여전히 존재한다. 본 논문은 기업 내 불합리한 성별 임금 격차가 다양성을 저해하고, 기업의 성과에 부정적인 영향을 미칠 것으로 예상하였다. 이를 위해 본 연구는 HCCP가 제공하는 사업체-근로자 연계자료를 활용하여 개인의 특성 및 능력으로 인한 부분을 제외한 임금의 격차를 정밀하게 측정하였다. 주요 분석 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 기업 내 남녀 임금 격차가 줄어들수록 기업 성과는 증가하는 것으로 나타났다. 또한, 성과를 비용과 매출 성장성 측면으로 나누어 살펴본 결과 남녀 임금 격차가 감소할 때 비용에는 영향을 미치지 않았으나 기업의 매출이 증가하는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 남녀 임금 격차와 성과 간의 관계에 기업 문화가 추가적인 영향을 미치지 않는 것으로 나타났다. 즉, 기업 문화에 관련 없이 남녀 임금 격차가 감소할 때, 기업 성과가 개선되는 것으로 해석할 수 있다. 추가로 남녀 임금 격차가 감소한 표본과 증가한 표본으로 나누어 남녀 근속연수, 교육 및 경력의 차이를 구하여 두 표본을 비교 분석한 결과, 두 표본 사이에 인적 속성의 차이가 존재하지 않았으며, 이는 남녀 임금 격차가 다른 인적 속성에 기인한 것이 아님을 시사한다. This study analyzes the effect of the gender wage gap within the company on the firm performance. Although the female worker proportion increases due to women’ improved education level and active participation in the workforce, a gender pay gap still exists. This paper expects that the gender wage gap hinder diversity and this irrational wage gap negatively affect the firm performance. To be specific, based on Human Capital Corporate Panel data, we make a more accurate wage gap proxy by measuring the difference in residuals of wage regression after controlling all individual characteristics, rather than simply using the total wage gap. The results show that as the gender wage gap within a company decreases, the firm’s performance increases. In addition, when dividing firm performance into cost and sales growth, we find that the gender wage gap does not affect the cost, but enhances firm’s sales growth. Also, we find that corporate culture does not have any additional effect on the relation between gender wage gap and firm performance. In other words, this result implies that firm performance improves when the gender wage gap decreases regardless of corporate culture. In addition, we divide the sample into two groups: gender wage gap “decrease” group and “increase” group. Then we compare the total wage gap, service years, education level, career year between men and women. As a result, there is no significant difference in personal attribute between the two samples. This additional analysis suggests that the reduction in the gender wage gap was not changed by other personal attributes.

성별 고용형태별 임금격차 현황과 요인 분해

김태홍(Kim Tae-hong) 한국여성정책연구원 2013 여성연구 Vol.84 No.-

우리나라 비정규직 여성근로자의 임금수준은 정규직 남성근로자의 52.4%에 불과하다. 노동시장 우리나라 여성은 성차별, 비정규직은 고용형태 차별을 받고 있는 것으로 나타나서, 여성 비정규직은 성별과 고용형태에 기반을 둔 복합차별에 노출되었을 가능성이 크다. 이에 따라 여성 비정규직근로자의 임금 및 근로조건을 보면 다른 근로자집단에 비해서 상대적으로 임금 및 근로조건 등이 상당히 열악하다. 그 동안 임금격차와 요인분해 연구들은 기본적으로 성별임금격차 혹은 격차분해를 연구하거나 혹은 고용형태별 임금격차 혹은 격차분해를 연구함에 따라, 성별 임금격차와 고용형태별 임금격차의 특성 비교, 성 및 고용형태로 인해서 복합적으로 나타나고 있는 임금격차 정도와 요인을 파악하는데 한계가 있었다. 이에 따라 본 논문에서는 증대하고 있는 여성근로자, 비정규근로자 그리고 비정규직인 여성근로자의 열악한 임금수준의 현황과 그 원인을 분석하기 위해서, 성별 고용형태별 임금격차 현황과 요인을 분석하였다. 본 논문의 분석 결과에 의하면 성별임금격차의 44.9%는 차별 등 설명할 수 없는 요인에 기인한 것으로 나타났고, 고용형태별 임금격차를 보면 차별 등에 의한 임금격차부분은 18.9%이었다. 즉, 고용형태별 임금격차의 경우 차별 등에 의한 임금격차부분은 성별임금격차보다 훨씬 적었다. 이에 따라 여성 특히 비정규직 여성의 임금을 개선하기 위해서는 남녀고용차별 해소와 함께, 여성근로자집단에서 더 심각하게 나타나는 정규직과 비정규직간의 임금차별을 해소하는 것이 시급한 것으로 나타났다. In Korea, wage level of irregular female workers is 52.4% of regular male workers. It is some possibility that irregular female workers are faced multiple discrimination based on sex and employment pattern because of the spread of gender discrimination or employment pattern discrimination in labor market. Until now most of papers have been discussing on pay gap and decomposition of wage gap due to gender or employment pattern respectively. Thus, even though average wage of irregular female worker is 52.4% of that of regular male worker, there are few paper to analyse the wage gap based on both gender and employment pattern, the differences and similarity between gender pay gap and employment pattern pay gap. This paper estimates wage equations and attempts decomposition of wage gap based on gender and employment pattern respectively. In this paper the wage gap is measured on the basis of hourly wages. As the results of this analysis using Oaxaca and Ransom's two-fold decomposition method, 44.9% of gender gap is an unexplained part due to discrimination etc. On the other hand, 18.9% of total pay gap between regular and irregular worker is due to discrimination. This means that the parts of gender pay gap due to discrimination are ar larger than that of pay gap between regular worker and irregular worker. According to this results, to improve low wage of irregular female workers, the measures to eliminate gender discrimination in labor market should be implemented effectively.

성별 고용형태별 임금격차 현황과 요인 분해

김태홍 한국여성정책연구원 2013 여성연구 Vol.82 No.-

In Korea, wage level of irregular female workers is 52.4% of regular male workers. It is some possibility that irregular female workers are faced multiple discrimination based on sex and employment pattern because of the spread of gender discrimination or employment pattern discrimination in labor market. Until now most of papers have been discussing on pay gap and decomposition of wage gap due to gender or employment pattern respectively . Thus, even though average wage of irregular female worker is 52.4% of that of regular male worker, there are few paper to analyse the wage gap based on both gender and employment pattern, the differences and similarity between gender pay gap and employment pattern pay gap. This paper estimates wage equations and attempts decomposition of wage gap based on gender and employment pattern respectively. In this paper the wage gap is measured on the basis of hourly wages. As the results of this analysis using Oaxaca and Ransom’s two-fold decomposition method, 44.9% of gender gap is an unexplained part due to discrimination etc. On the other hand, 18.9% of total pay gap between regular and irregular worker is due to discrimination. This means that the parts of gender pay gap due to discrimination are ar larger than that of pay gap between regular worker and irregular worker. According to this results, to improve low wage of irregular female workers, the measures to eliminate gender discrimination in labor market should be implemented effectively. 우리나라 비정규직 여성근로자의 임금수준은 정규직 남성근로자의52.4%에 불과하다. 노동시장 우리나라 여성은 성차별, 비정규직은 고용형태차별을 받고 있는 것으로 나타나서, 여성 비정규직은 성별과 고용형태에 기반을 둔 복합차별에 노출되었을 가능성이 크다. 이에 따라 여성 비정규직근로자의 임금 및 근로조건을 보면 다른 근로자집단에 비해서 상대적으로 임금 및 근로조건 등이 상당히 열악하다. 그 동안 임금격차와 요인분해 연구들은 기본적으로 성별임금격차 혹은 격차분해를 연구하거나 혹은 고용형태별 임금격차 혹은 격차분해를 연구함에 따라, 성별 임금격차와 고용형태별임금격차의 특성 비교, 성 및 고용형태로 인해서 복합적으로 나타나고 있는임금격차 정도와 요인을 파악하는데 한계가 있었다. 이에 따라 본 논문에서는 증대하고 있는 여성근로자, 비정규근로자 그리고 비정규직인 여성근로자의 열악한 임금수준의 현황과 그 원인을 분석하기 위해서, 성별 고용형태별 임금격차 현황과 요인을 분석하였다. 본 논문의분석 결과에 의하면 성별임금격차의 44.9%는 차별 등 설명할 수 없는 요인에 기인한 것으로 나타났고, 고용형태별 임금격차를 보면 차별 등에 의한임금격차부분은 18.9%이었다. 즉, 고용형태별 임금격차의 경우 차별 등에의한 임금격차부분은 성별임금격차보다 훨씬 적었다. 이에 따라 여성 특히비정규직 여성의 임금을 개선하기 위해서는 남녀고용차별 해소와 함께, 여성근로자집단에서 더 심각하게 나타나는 정규직과 비정규직간의 임금차별을 해소하는 것이 시급한 것으로 나타났다.

성별임금격차의 요인분해: 국제개발협력 시민사회단체를 중심으로

박종남,유익,남청수 국제개발협력학회 2022 국제개발협력연구 Vol.14 No.2

Purpose: This study aims to analyze gender wage gap and the wage inequality between male and female workers of development CSO in Korea, who engaged in Civil Society Partnership Program of KOICA from 2019 to 2021. Originality: Gender wage gap has been widely discussed as a crucial issue in diverse disciplines. However, studies focusing on an empirical analysis have scarcely been found. This study presents an econometric method that helps examine the gender pay gap in the development CSOs by employing the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition and Gelbach decomposition method. Methodology: The methodology of this paper is based on studying and analyzing the topic of wage gap between males and females by using Oaxaca decomposition and Gelbach decomposition technique. Result: It is found that women earn approximately 10.83% less than men with similar professional qualifications do, and 50.18% of gender wage gap is found to be unexplained. However, the unexplained gap among in under 30s is about 55.39% in comparison 70.28% among upper 40’s. Conclusions and Implication: Analysis by age groups shows that gender pay gap has been decreased in groups of 30s and under 30s. Nevertheless, the gap still remains in workers group of development CSOs. Considering more than 50% of the gap can be ascribed to gender discrimination, it needs considerations and responses from diverse aspects. Hence, further researches need to be complemented by examining rooted causes and background of gender pay gap which are hard to be found by structured survey.

20대 대졸 여성은 차별받지 않는가? 소득수준별 성별 임금격차와 직업가치관의 효과

신용우 ( Yongwoo Shin ),조영일 ( Youngil Cho ) 사단법인 아시아문화학술원 2021 인문사회 21 Vol.12 No.5

본 연구 목표는 경력단절 이전의 20대 대졸 청년층의 성별 임금격차가 소득수준별로 어떻게 나타나는지 살펴보는 것, 비인지적 역량인 직업가치관이 성별 임금격차 감소에 영향을 주는지 검정하는 것이다. 본 논문은 대졸자직업이동경로조사를 이용하여 연구하였다. 소득수준을 나누지 않은 전체 집단의 성별 임금격차는 23.3%로 나타났고, 산업관련 조건까지 통제하면 4.4%까지 감소하였다. 소득수준 下집단은 직접 성별 임금격차는 없었다. 中집단은 성별 임금격차 20.5%, 上집단은 성별 임금격차 9.9%로 나타났다. 下집단, 上집단에서는 성별 임금격차를 수반하는 성별 직업분리도 나타나 소득수준별로 성별 임금격차의 양상이 달랐다. 직업가치관은 성별 임금격차를 감소시키는 직접 효과는 없는 것으로 나타났다. 일부 집단에서 직업가치관이 소득에 기여하는 것이 증명되어, 성별 임금격차 감소에 간접 효과는 기대할 수 있다. This study examines the gender wage gap among college graduates in their 20s by income level before they cease their careers. This study used Graduates Occupational Mobility Survey. In the pre-analysis where income level was not differentiated, the gender wage gap was 23.3%; with industry-related conditions controlled, it decreased to 4.4%. There was no direct gender wage gap for the lower-income level group. The middle-income level group showed a gender wage gap of 20.5% and the upper-income level group showed a gender wage gap of 9.9%. In the lower and upper groups, there was job separation between the genders, which accompanies the gender wage gap, implying that the pattern of the gender wage gap differs by income level. Work value was found to have no direct effect on reducing the gender wage gap.

한국 상장기업의 성별 임금격차에 관한 연구

정재만,설원식 대한산업경영학회 2020 산업융합연구 Vol.18 No.2

본 연구에서는 국내 대표기업이라 할 수 있는 유가증권시장 상장기업을 대상으로 2000-2017년 동안 성별 임금 격차 현황 및 추세를 분석하였다. 연구의 주요 결과를 보면, 먼저 2017년 상장기업의 성별 고용격차 지수는 39.81로 남성 100명당 여성 40명 수준의 고용이 이루어지고 있었다. 여성고용 비중의 절대값은 여전히 낮지만, 2000년 33.74 에 비해 높을 뿐 아니라 최근으로 올수록 지속적으로 증가하였다. 근속년수 측면에서는 2017년 남성 종업원 평균 근속 년수는 9.9년인데 비해 여성 종업원은 6.9년으로 나타났으며, 최근으로 올수록 성별 근속년수 격차가 감소하였다. 성별 임금격차 지수는 2000년 60.57에서 2017년 67.87로 증가하였다. 또한, 기업 규모나 업종별로 약간의 편차는 존재하나 최근으로 올수록 성별 임금격차가 감소하는 일관된 결과가 나타났다. 연구 결과는 우리 사회가 성별 고용격차 및 임금 격차를 줄여가는 방향으로 발전되고 있음을 시사한다. This study analyzed the status and trend of gender wage gap among listed companies in KOPSI market over the 2000-2017 period. The main results of the study are as follows. First, the gender employment gap index for KOSPI listed companies stood at 39.81 in 2017, with 40 women per 100 men being employed. Although the absolute value of the proportion of female employment remains low, it has not only been higher than 33.74 in 2000 but has also increased steadily in recent years. In terms of the number of years of service, the average number of male employees in 2017 was 9.9 years, compared with 6.9 years for female employees, and the gender tenure gap decreased over the past few years. Finally, The gender wage gap index increased from 60.57 in 2000 to 67.87 in 2017. In addition, there are slight variations in the size of the company or industry, but consistent results have shown that the gender wage gap decreases in recent years. The findings suggest that our society is developing in a way that reduces the gender employment gap and the gender wage gap.

A Comparative Study on the Measurement of Gender Pay Gap Analysis: Oaxaca-Blinder vs Pay Ratio Method

김정진,김상준 한국무역연구원 2022 무역연구 Vol.18 No.5

Purpose – This study purposes to investigate the methodology of measurement in a comparative way by pitting the traditional approach against the recently new approach: Oaxaca-Blinder medium variance and pay-ratio method. Given that Korea’s gender pay gap has been debated on diversity, equality, and inclusion, this study attempts to explore an alternative measurement method towards remedying the situation in Korea. Examining the methodology for analyzing the pay gap is crucial. Previous studies (Heath et al., 2013) have struggled to define the gender pay gap and to explain the phenomenon’s effect in the workplace. This difficulty is experienced because the scope of influence on pay differences is broad and pay-related exceptions always appear in companies. Design/Methodology/Approach – This study, using the data of listed companies of the Financial Supervisory Service and HCCP (Human Capital Enterprise Panel) data supported by Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training, analyzes the gender wage gap in Korea in two different measurements. We employ the Human Capital Corporate Panel data (HCCP) for Oaxaca-Blinder method and collect 31,694 employees’ information between 2007 and 2017 from the database. For the organization-level approach, we extract data from the Data Analysis, Retrieval and Transfer System (DART), which provides all the information of publicly-traded firms in Korea disclose. In the DART system, we obtain the pay amounts as well as the populations of 454 firms, randomly generated between 2019 and 2021. These data are matched to the TS2000 database to incorporate the sample firms’ financial information. Findings – The results of this study are notable. First, in terms of the Oaxaca-Blinder, the gender wage gap, based on the average annual salary, stands at 36% over the past 10 years. In particular, the gap notably expanded from the manufacturing industry. Second, the women pay-ratio quintile method shows an average pay gap of 32.5%. The effects of data and measurement methods are important. This means the impact of human resource related variables on the gender pay gap is much bigger and consistent in Korean enterprises. Research Implications – This study has the following theoretical and practical implications to resolve the pay gap. First, in the pay gap between male and female workers, it is necessary to look more closely at pay-related items and measurement method. Second, it is meaningful to strengthen the evaluation of performance through the disclosure of pay information. Third, in order to reduce the pay gap for women, it is necessary to avoid unfair discrimination in terms of personnel management not only during the employment stage but also after employment.

Analysis of Gender Pay Gap in Different Sectors of the Economy in Kazakhstan

Anel A. Kireyeva,Azimkhan A. SATYBALDIN 한국유통과학회 2019 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.6 No.2

This study aims is to analyze of existing concepts of gender stereotypes and gender differences in wages, defining of gender pay gap determinants, and to evaluate the level of discrimination against women in Kazakhstan. This paper begins by reviewing trends in gender stereotypes and gender segregation during the past several decades. In this research, authors propose the methodological tools for presenting a standard form of evaluation of gender pay gap. The developed methodological tools will allow providing authentic and formal analysis on gender pay gap and identifying the main determinants of gender pay differences. Further, the obtained results showed the distribution of wage gap in Kazakhstan's regions and the Duncan's dissimilation index allows us to trace the dynamics of changes in the professional structure between men and women. According to the results, gender pay gap is narrowing with the reduction of the job level and discrimination is related to differences in human capital and education. Wages in the industrial sector are higher for men than for women, because men's professions are characterized by severe and unhealthy working conditions. In addition, employers prefer male managers, but if they take woman managers, they give them salary 3 times less.

우리나라 노동시장에서의 성별 임금격차: 수요-공급 모형을 이용한 새로운 실증분석

백경호,최지혜,김시원 한국경제연구학회 2022 한국경제연구 Vol.40 No.3

This study constructs a supply-demand model of gender wage gap, represented by wage of male worker relative to female, and examines its empirical implications using panel data by industry. The estimation result is mostly consistent with the prediction of the model: the difference in human capital, i.e., the demand side factor has positive effects on the gender wage gap, and increase in the supply of male workers relative to female workers reduces the gender wage gap. The result is robust with alternative assumptions on endogeneity about the relative supply. The analysis presents also several interesting findings about gender wage gaps of different industries, undocumented by previous studies. Six industries are identified, in which the supply side factor is much more dominant than the demand side factor in determining the gender wage gap, and hence they have lower gender wage gap relative to other industries. Conversely, the demand side factor plays much more dominating role in the four industries than the supply side factor, and the gender wage gap is relatively wider in those industries. Interestingly, gender wage gap attributable to direct discrimination is higher in the industries with dominant supply side factor relative to demand side factor. This implies that female workers tend to herd to industries favorable to them. 본 연구는 산업별 패널자료를 이용하여 노동에 대한 수요-공급 모형으로부터 유도된 남성/여성 노동자 임금격차 결정식을 추정하였다. 추정결과는 이론적 예측과 부합하는 것으로 나타났다: 수요요인을 대표하는 인적자본의 차이는 남성/여성 노동자의 임금격차를 확대시키는 요인으로 작용하고, 공급요인을 대표하는 남성/여성 노동자의 상대적 공급 증가는 임금격차를 완화하는 요인으로 작용하는 것으로 나타났다. 따라서 지난 30년의 남성/여성 노동자의 임금격차 변화는 수요 및 공급요인과 더불어 노동시장에서의 여성의 지위에 대한 사회적 인식의 변화가 복합적으로 반영된 결과라 하겠다. 이 같은 추정결과는 상대적 노동공급에 대한 내생성 가정에 강건한 것으로 나타났다. 산업별 분석에서는 6개 산업에서 공급요인이 수요요인을 압도하였으며, 이들 산업에서는 남성/여성 노동자의 임금격차가 상대적으로 낮은 것으로 나타났다. 반면, 수요요인이 공급요인을 압도하는 산업은 4개였으며 이들 산업에서는 남성/여성 노동자의 임금격차가 상대적으로 큰 것으로 나타났다. 한편, 공급요인이 압도적인 산업에서는 직접적 차별이 높은 반면, 수요요인이 압도적인 산업에서는 직접적 차별 수준이 낮은 것으로 나타났다. 이는 여성 노동자들이 직접적 차별 수준이 높은 산업을 회피하고 낮은 산업으로 집중하는 현상이 반영된 결과로 해석될 수 있다.