Religion in the Era of Globalization : The Potential of Confucian Protestantism of Korea

채병관 한국효학회 2009 효학연구 Vol.0 No.9

People acknowledge that globalization is an ongoing process and a universal phenomenon in the economic system. Some considered that homogeneity is also a characteristic of religion in the era of globalization as “Mcdonaldization” in the economic field, and that religion will only stick to fundamentalism to keep its religious orthodoxy. However, globalization provides religion with much more vitality. That is, one can observe more diverse phenomena in the field of religion, different from that which occur red In the case of the economic system that has resulted from globalization. Complex globalization can accelerate “glocalization” and the emergence of hybridity. In this essay, thus, I look into the relationship between globalization and religion and the influence of globalization on religion specifically. In addition, I shed light on Korean Protestantism as Confucian Protestantism, and I deal with it as a case in which a religious outcome was influenced by globalization. I think that Confucian Protestantism is one of the examples of glocalization and hybridty. This essay asserts that unlike the field of economics, one can observe more diverse and widespread phenomena in the field of religion in the era of globalization. People acknowledge that globalization is an ongoing process and a universal phenomenon in the economic system. Some considered that homogeneity is also a characteristic of religion in the era of globalization as “Mcdonaldization” in the economic field, and that religion will only stick to fundamentalism to keep its religious orthodoxy. However, globalization provides religion with much more vitality. That is, one can observe more diverse phenomena in the field of religion, different from that which occur red In the case of the economic system that has resulted from globalization. Complex globalization can accelerate “glocalization” and the emergence of hybridity. In this essay, thus, I look into the relationship between globalization and religion and the influence of globalization on religion specifically. In addition, I shed light on Korean Protestantism as Confucian Protestantism, and I deal with it as a case in which a religious outcome was influenced by globalization. I think that Confucian Protestantism is one of the examples of glocalization and hybridty. This essay asserts that unlike the field of economics, one can observe more diverse and widespread phenomena in the field of religion in the era of globalization.

A Study on the Economic Benefits of Globalization: Focusing on the Poverty and Inequality between the Rich and the Poor

신상협 한국외국어대학교 국제지역연구센터 2009 International Area Studies Review Vol.12 No.2

Globalization is now well recognized by many as an inescapable feature of the world today. In particular, in the middle of global economic crisis globalization is one of the hot issues drawing much attention from countries around the world. There are contradictory perspectives on globalization. There are many sweeping statements that assert that economic globalization is increasing global poverty and inequality between the rich and the poor in the world. There are also many others who insist that the poverty and inequality issues have been resolved in some sense through globalization. In order to find the answer to the question, firstly the meaning of globalization was fully explained. Based on the understanding of globalization, the questions such as how globalization has contributed to reduce the economic gap between the developed and the developing countries, and to reduce the poverty by analyzing the economic growth, the number of people living below the absolute poverty line and so on were analyzed. The reasons why globalization is a good opportunity for some countries while some other countries get not something from the globalization was also discussed in this research. We found that globalization has contributed to reduce global poverty and to increase the welfare of both the developed and developing countries. However globalization has impacted different groups differently. Some have benefited enormously, while others have borne more of the costs. The developed countries could get more economic benefits from the less developed countries through globalization. This means, inequality between the rich and the poor countries still remained as a serious threat in the global economy. And even among the developing countries globalization has impacted differently. The trends toward faster growth and poverty reduction are strongest in developing economies that have integrated with the global economy most rapidly, which supports the view that integration has been a positive force for improving the lives of people in developing countries There are two main reasons for the inequality existing between the developed and developing countries. The fist one is the difference of economic size and power between the developed countries and the developing countries started to exist from the late 18th century. The second one is the differences in the management skill in taking advantage of the globalization.

세계화(지구화) 이론의 모순

한수경 ( Su Kyung Han ) 한국정치평론학회 2011 정치와 평론 Vol.8 No.-

Globalization has been one of the most controversially discussed issues over the last decades. Some authors have tried to explain all problems and newly emerging changes of the world in the context of globalization. Many globalization theorists assert that globalization is neither cultural (media) imperialism nor Americanization. It should also not be understood as homogenization or standardization. According to the globalization thesis, local or indigenous cultures are not supplanted by global culture which is often perceived as western or American culture, but both coexist and complement one another in terms of ``glocalization`` or ``hybridization`` within the scope of globalization. Some media and communications scholars influenced by sociology, especially cultural studies, have adopted a new explanation approach for globalization called ``transcultural communication``. In line with the concept of ``culture`` as homogenous national culture in the context of conventional international and intercultural communication, they state that cross-cultural and-border communication cannot be explained. Many scholars are also sure that the nation states lose their function as a result of globalization along with an increase of tourists, diasporas, and media communications worldwide which affects not only a society but also identities of individuals in terms of culture. This allows for a ``global village``, ``global society``, or ``global culture`` with multicultural or hybrid characteristics. However, what is missing in such a theoretical approach is an empirical verification. According to globalization theorists, meta-theories such as globalization cannot be verified, although several parts of them are based on concrete empiricism. Another problem is that the ``digital divide``, colonial history, and multicultural compositions in many societies of the world have not been concerned in their approach. For these reasons, this paper gives the answer to the question why the assumptions of the globalization theory are not justified.

논문(論文) : 세계화와 교육 -Thomas Friedman의 이론을 중심으로-

김미경 ( Mee Kyung Kim ) 대구사학회 2011 대구사학 Vol.105 No.-

It is very important to analyze the relation of globalization phenomena and educational system in the era of globalization. Virtually all aspects of modern life-our jobs, culture, education, relationship with one another-are being transformed by the profound forces of globalization. Not only has globalization become the central issue of our time, but it will define the world the next inherit. It is essential to hold an objective position of the globalization because there are diverse perspectives of the causes and effects of globalization. This study made a comprehensive framework to deal with the problems of globalization in education and also reviewed the globalization phenomena and educational reform in the historical perspective, focusing on the theory of Thomas Friedman. Thomas Friedman suggested three steps of globalization-globalization 1.0, globalization 2.0, globalization 3.0. Each steps of globalization is closely related with educational system with the historical background. Modern education in the age of globalization 3.0 has transformed from education for nation and company to education for human being. The desirable educational theory in the globalization era should be to cultivate symbiotical human being through multicultural education. Korea has also changed educational situation rapidly in the meet of globalization. For example, The number of inbound and outbound students and foreigner labourers has been rapidly increasing as progress of globalization. It is time to establish the new educational reform related to globalization. And the globalization education is also important to students who live in the era of globalization.

구약성서에 나타난 세계화: ‘세계화’ 상황에 대한 예언자적 사역

유윤종 한국구약학회 2013 구약논단 Vol.19 No.4

This paper pursues to analyze contemporary globalized context of the world, to find various markers signifying globalization in the Old Testament, and to suggest the directions for prophetic ministry. This paper takes Walter Brueggemann's methodology in analyzing the prophetic texts by which Brueggemann defines the prophet as a challenger against royal ideology. What he means 'royal ideology' includes dominant cultures of our days like wealth, position, seeking security as well as royal ideology of the biblical times. Chapter two deals with new contexts caused by globalization. The new characteristics are 'globalization as ideology,' 'intensification of economic inequality among classes,' 'cultural diversity,' 'glocalization,' and 'creativity.' In sum, the contemporary new characteristics were driven from an economic philosophy called neo-liberalism which is spread over politics, society, cultures as well as economy, thus threatening God's created order in the world. The globalization has been accelerated by the development of information technology. There is no word for 'globalization' in the Bible, but we can find markers for signifying 'globalization.' In chapter three, the paper deals with 'literary and theological markers for signifying globalization in the Old Testament.' First, in creation story, God proclaims that everything in the world is created by God. The emphasis on God's sovereignty was the rejection of a dominant imperialistic Babylonian ideology. Second, in Exodus story, Yahweh is described as having sovereignty over history and nature. Yahweh's punishment over Pharaoh was an attack over Egypt's dominant ideology. Third, in the history of Israel, markers of globalization occur in entire history. The paper seeks to explain markers of globalization by dividing the period of a united kingdom, two divided monarchy, exiles, and Ezra & Nehemiah. Fourth, in prophetic texts, universalism in which Yahweh controls all nations as well as Israel occurs in various texts. Fifth, in wisdom literature, the marker for globalization is that Israel not only accepted the wisdom literature of ancient Near East, but also reinterpreted it according to its own tradition. Chapter four suggests the directions for prophetic ministry in globalized context of the world. First, monotheism is a rejection to a belief that any other thing except God can have a sovereignty over human being. Israel people in the exilic period did not accept imperialistic Babylonian ideology by the confessing monotheism in which only Yahweh is God. In the globalized contemporary world, we should reject any ideology that money can save the world. Second, for overcoming economic inequality in the globalized world, prophetic justice should be proclaimed. Third, capitalism is the most dominant economic system which make many various voices disappear in the world. We can find different voices in the Old Testament. Prophets rejected a unified royal theology and adopted traditional egalitarian spirit to oppose substantial discoure of their world. Fourth, it is noteable that globalization has very close connection with glocalization. Two concepts are not contradictory, but complementary. Fifth, because of diversity of contemporary world, creative imagination is required. Prophets saw visions in the crisis of history. We should also have a vision of globalization for the poor and the oppressed. 이 글은 오늘날 신자유주의라는 경제현상으로 인해 우리 시대를 지배하고 있는 세계화 현상을 비판적으로 분석한 후, 구약성서에 나타난 세계화와 관련된 문학적, 신학적 표지들을 살펴보고, 문제점에 대한 예언자적 사역의 방향을 제시한다. 이 글은 세계화 현상이란 거부할 수 없는 현실 속에서, 성서학자로서 기독교인으로서 하나님의 뜻에 올바로 행동하기 위한 성서적 사유방향을 안내하고 있다.

현재의 글로벌화는 `1571년`에 시작되었는가?-`16세기 글로벌화기원론`에 대한 비판적 평가-

현재열 ( Hyun Jae-youl ) 한국서양사학회 2017 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.132

많은 역사가들은 16세기 이후 은을 비롯한 여러 상품의 세계 전역에 걸친 교역활동의 전개를 통해 `세계경제`가 등장했다는 점에 대체로 동의해 왔다. 이 16세기 은 교역의 전개와 세계경제 등장에 대한 논의에서 학술적으로 큰 공헌을 한 이로 데니스 플린과 아르투로 히랄데즈(Dennis O. Flynn & Arturo Giraldez)가 있다. 이들은 세계 은 교역을 국제경제에 적용하는 거시경제적 시각이 아니라 실물적 측면에서의 미시경제적 시각에서 접근하여 세계 은 교역의 메커니즘을 수요·공급의 법칙에 입각해 설명하는 데 기여를 했고, 아울러 세계시장의 형성을 `수많은 지역시장의 통합`으로 설명함으로써 세계경제의 등장에 대한 이해에도 크게 도움을 주었다. 하지만 플린과 히랄데즈는 2000년대를 전후해서부터 16세기 세계경제의 등장이 오늘날의 `글로벌화(globalization)`의 기원이라는 주장을 강력하게 제기해 왔다. 그들은 세계 무역의 연결관계에서 만이 아니라 16세기 이후 `전 지구적인` 생태학적·병리학적 연결관계의 등장을 주요 근거로 삼아 16세기부터 글로벌화가 시작되었음을 주장하였다. 이 글은 플린과 히랄데즈의 이런 16세기 글로벌화 기원론에 대해 비판적으로 검토해 보고자 하는 비평 글이다. 먼저 논의의 출발로서 플린과 히랄데즈의 글로벌화 정의를 오늘날의 글로벌화에 대한 다양한 정의와 비교하여 그들의 정의가 가진 문제점들을 밝혔다. 둘째, 16세기 세계경제의 등장을 글로벌화의 기원으로 보는 플린과 히랄데즈의 주장을 전 지구적 `통합(integration)`과 `연결(connection)`이라는 측면에서 검토하여 16세기 등장한 `세계경제`가 오늘날의 글로벌화에서 제시하는 전 지구적으로 균일하고 일체화된 통합 및 연결과는 그 정도에서 훨씬 못 미친다는 점을 보여주었다. 특히 그들의 전체 논의에서 중심적인 역할을 하는 근대 초기(근세) 동아시아 경제의 실상을 근거로 그들의 주장이 가진 한계를 밝혔다. 이런 과정을 통해 플린과 히랄데즈의 16세기 글로벌화 기원론의 문제점을 드러내고, 16세기 세계경제의 등장 이후 오늘날까지의 전개에 대해 질적 전환을 충분히 고려한 신중한 접근의 필요성을 강조하고자 한다. The historical scholars have generally agreed on the emergence of `world economy` through the development of trades in many goods (including silver) across the world, beginning from the 16th century. Among them, Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, the economic historians of the U.S., have contributed greatly to the academic scholarship about the development of the world silver trade and the emergence of world economy in the 16th century. However, Flynn and Giraldez have powerfully put forward the suggestion that this emergence of the world economy was the origin of today`s globalization since around 2000`s. They have suggested that globalization was born in the 16th century not only in terms of the connections of world trades, but also on the ground of the deployment the world-wide ecological and epidemiological connections. This paper is a critical essay about the argument of the 16th century`s globalization birth by Flynn and Giraldez. To begin with, it considers the definitions of terms, such as `world economy`, `global economy`, `globalization`, etc., and arrange conceptually the world economy and the globalization. Secondly, it clarifies their main arguments concerning the 16th century`s globalization birth by comparing their definition of globalization to other definitions. Thirdly, it approaches their arguments in three dimensions: the definition of globalization, the actual nature of the emerging world economy in the 16th century, and the extents of its integration and connection. Through these examinations, this paper discloses the problems of their argument regarding the birth of globalization in the 16th century, and emphasizes the necessity to approach more cautiously the emergence of world economy by giving sufficient consideration to its qualitative transformations from the 16th century till today.

Toward Multiculturalism through American Ethnic Studies in the Globalizing World

Eunjung Park 한국외국어대학교 영미연구소 2004 영미연구 Vol.10 No.-

This paper aims to develop several ideas of multiculturalism, American ethnic studies, and American globalization to better understand the relationships among them. The U.S. can be a center of globalization process. While the term ‘globalization’ originates from the area of international trade and business, this paper tries to focus on the cultural aspects of globalization. Academia and government in the U.S. have developed policies emphasizing ethnic diversity and multiculturalism that embrace incoming immigrants. Ethnic studies is an area in academia to understand others and intersect the common experience among different cultures in the U.S. While many Americans try to de-emphasize racial differences, ethnicity emerges as rather an important term in the process of globalization in the U.S. Different and diverse cultures in the U.S. are exposed to the mass with their own ways of lives, religions, food, and customs, but they still believe all of them are Americans enough to assume the same American identity. This paper attempts to define globalization, which is quite different from American nationalism, imperialism, or internationalism. Globalization exists somewhere between the First World metropolitan global city and the Third World NGO’s indigenous area, between multiculturalism and ethnicity. It has its own “world system” by intervening in international civil society. With a global spirit people go with transnational idea, and migrate to several metropolitan global cities to earn money. Most of the monetary fund is poured into the global cities, where people enjoy their diverse and unique cultures in their own imagined community. That is the reason ethnic belonging and ethnic studies should be embraced as part of globalization in the U.S. In conclusion, this paper contends that a vision that the equality of multicultural phenomena in the U.S. can accomplish the ideal model of globalization for the world. So everybody who tries to move toward globalism feels at home even in a global city, and they can succeed in their pursuits of reaching beyond nationalism.

세계화의 신학, 신학의 세계화, 그리고 교회

문시영 한국구약학회 2014 구약논단 Vol.20 No.4

The purpose of this paper is to propose a balanced reflection on the issue of ‘globalization’ in a context in which negative views on it prevail. In fact, a majority of scholars blame globalization as a seriously troubled issue which harms the whole world. It is also true that globalization is the matrix of our times. In this context, this paper seeks to present a balanced reflection on globalization, based on the public theology of M. Stackhouse as follows: (1) Theology of globalization: It needs to be balanced between globalization as ‘another Fall’ and ‘providential grace’. According to Stackhouse, the most important question on this topic is not whether globalization is acceptable or not, but ‘How can Christianity contribute to establish the publicness of the globalization?’(2) The globalization of theology: Stackhouse urges that theology has to be concerned about the issues of human rights, fair trade, technology, and so on. In other words, the globalization of Christian ethics is urgently needed. Moreover, providing moral guides for the globalized world is a very important task of theology in our times. Of course, there are some critics of Stackhouse’s view. For example, some say that Stackhouse has a tendency to evaluate globalization positively. Others think although he finally arrived at a contextual theology, nevertheless he himself maintained the importance of a non-contextual view. In my opinion, Stackhouse has little concern about the ecclesiastical horizon. It is never to be ignored that the church is very important in the realization of moral tasks in the global era. 세계화에 대한 부정적 견해가 지배적인 가운데, 균형 잡힌 이해와 실천적 대안모색이 필요함을 강조하려는 것이 이 글의 목적이다. 세계화가 오늘날 문제들의 원죄 격에 해당한다면, 거부해야 마땅하겠지만 세계화가 삶의 매트릭스로 자리 잡은 정황에서, 반대와 거부가 능사는 아닐 듯싶다. 세계화에 대해 균형 잡힌 신학적 성찰을 위해, ‘세계화의 신학’을 통해 ‘신학의 세계화’를 추구한 공공신학자 스택하우스의 관점을 다루었다. ‘세계화의 신학’이란, 세계화에 대한 균형 잡힌 신학적 성찰 필요성을 말하는 것으로서, ‘글로벌’이 삶의 매트릭스가 된 정황에서 공공성 성찰이 긴요하다는 점을 부각시키기 위한 기초작업이다. 세계화를 ‘또 다른 타락’으로 간주하는 관점과 ‘섭리적 은혜’로 해석하는 관점 사이에서, 스택하우스는 긍정과 부정의 관점들에 대한 객관적 평가를 통해 기독교가 어떻게 기여할 것인지 성찰해야 한다고 주장한다. 신학의 세계화란, 세계화에 대한 신학의 적극적 참여와 공공성의 확립을 제안하는 관점을 말한다. 세계화를 신학의 이슈로 상정하고 세계화의 명암을 평가하는 단계를 넘어서, 적극적으로 인권과 공정무역의 문제 등을 신학의 주제로 삼아야 한다는 뜻에서, ‘기독교윤리의 세계화’(Globalization of Christian ethics)라고 할 수 있겠다. 세계화에 대한 도덕적 가이드를 제시하는 일에 신학이 적극적이어야 함을 강조한 것이다. 스택하우스의 관점에 비판의 여지가 없는 것은 아니다. 세계화의 명암을 균형 있게 평가하기를 제안했지만, 결과적으로는 밝은 면을 부각시키는 데로 흘러가서 마치 자유주의 정치와 경제에 세례를 주는 듯 느껴진다는 반응도 있다. 비상황적(non-contextual) 신학으로서의 공공신학을 제안하면서도 또 다른 의미의 상황적 신학이 되어 버렸다는 비판도 있다. 필자의 관점으로는, 세계화에 대한 관심을 교회의 책무로 격상시키는 노력에 소홀했다는 사실에 한계가 있어 보인다. 세계화에 대한 성찰은 교회로 하여금 세계화시대의 윤리를 모색하는 일에 적극 동참하게 하는 단계로 나아가야 한다는 뜻이다.

세계화에 대한 한국 기자들의 인식유형 연구

김승현,김유석,최선영,최은경 한국주관성연구학회 2008 주관성연구 Vol.- No.17

The object of this study is to examine the type of Korean Journalist’s perception on globalization. Globalization is an hot issue in this century. However, the meaning of globaliztion is not clear yet and globalization has many contending meanings to people of the different economic and political life conditions. It is naturally assumed that the perception of journalist on globalization has certain influences to the general image of globalization of the lay people in Korea. The 63 Q-statement was selected from newspapers, magazines and textbooks. P-sample was korean journalists. 20 Journalists sorted 63 statement. Three typology was presented in this study; “Globalization as utopia,” “Globalization as nightmare,” and “Globalization as scepticism.” Type I(“globalization as nightmare”) has anxiety that the western countries(especially the United States) would dominate in the a world capitalist single market. Another anxiety was about the widening unequality in economic power between the have and the have-not countries. They also worried that the economic dominance will be followed by a homogenized system of world culture. Type II (“Globalization as utopia”) was mainly concentrated on the cultural and political globalization items. They hoped that many countries in the global world will be more democratic political system and live together peacefully in the global era. Type III, as title means, has the position of scepticism. Globalization is to this group still unclear and uncertain in many levels.

Sports and Globalization in Korean Society

Lee Kyung Hoon(이경훈) 한국체육과학회 2005 한국체육과학회지 Vol.14 No.2

The process of globalization is one of the most important social trends in contemporary society. In every comer of the world, it is necessary to understand and experience the central concepts of globalization. In contemporary Korean society, the process of globalization is also one of the most important social issues. In the sport world, globalization could restructure the current system into more universal form. In most cases, globalization could be defined as followings; 1. Globalization as internationalization. 2. Globalization as liberalization. 3. Globalization as universalization. 4. Globalization as westernization or modernization. 5. Globalization as deterritorialization. The entire world of Korean sports have been changed through the process of globalization in Korean society. Therefore, for understanding the Korean sports, it is necessary to understand the Korean society. For doing so, it is important to understand the significant theoretical relations between the sports and society. The globalization of Korean sports has to consider and reflect both Korean and global values. Eventually, globalization process in Korean society is seeking universal values. At the same time, it is important to make enormous efforts to preserve voices of Korean people and society.