Critique on Folk Religion for the Pakistani Christians

정흥호 한국복음주의선교신학회 2008 복음과 선교 Vol.9 No.-

ABSTRACT Chong Hung-Ho Asian Center for Theological Studies and Mission Folk religion in the Pakistani religious climate has rooted deeply since religions came into India. Social and cultural phobia must have their impact on the inhabitants. There has not been much academic research published or written on this burning issue. Folk religion, however, makes other Orthodox religions weaker and uncertain. Folk religion has become very common because materialistic thinking and situations demand and encourage believers to have instant solutions of their problems. When people face any problem or difficulty or hard times in their lives, even though they have religious beliefs and faith, soon they seek other ways to get release or comfort from such problems. This situation leads them to folk religion. The followers of those particular religionists start a new religion within a religion. “Folk” means people. “Folklore” is the study of the customs, beliefs, stories and traditions of a particular people. Folk religion seems a religion of the people, rather than an orthodox religion. Folk religions synthesize popular beliefs and practices, frequently animistic in nature, that are developed within cultures to handle problems in every day. Particularly in tribal contexts where people understand themselves to live in terms of an extend family, a clan, or a tribe having a distinct cultural heritage, folk religion frequently exists outside the fold of a major world religious tradition. Folk religion consists of beliefs, superstitions and cultural practices transmitted from generation to generation, in addition to the formally stated creeds and beliefs of a codified major religion. It is a burning issue that in Pakistan there a reavastmajority of people living under the influence of folk religion even though Pakistan is under the strong influence of Islam. Islam in Pakistan has two major sects, Sunni and Shi’i. This Islamic division has many rival sects. Shi’I Islam is older in origin than Sunn’ism and modeled much more closely on the political practices of Muhammad and the original four Caliphs. The question arises why people follow or adopt such attitudes towards or within their religions even though they have a perfect code of life in the form of religions both in Islam and Christianity. For example, Islam itself claims a complete code of life. Christianity claims, too. In this sense, there are conflicts in their practical lives they don’t live their lives according to what they have been taught. The basic reason why people have adopted folk religious practices has deep roots in Hinduism. In Sufism, which started in the eleventh century in Islam, many folk practices such as rituals and customs in Pakistan. From a missiological perspective it is a Christian duty to give awareness to the Pakistani Christians, and teach them that Christ is the only Way and Savior to meet their whole needs(John 14:6). In the Pakistani folk religion, it teaches that there are some personalities or holy men who are able to take people to God or have powers to listen to prayer, have abilities to solve people’s problems. In other words, they need something more than God which means God alone is not able to solve every problem. Here is the answer in the Bible; “Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words will be no means pass away” (Matthew 24: 35). God’s living words, the Scriptures become a prophecy that is still rock-solid in everyday. To summarize it, to see real change in members of folk religions they have to be brought to Jesus, so that they will be delivered from the powers of darkness, and become new creatures in Christ. Then, as God’s new humanity, they can move out in power into enemy territory and reclaim those who are still children of disobedience. The Pakistani Church is being challenged on all fronts. But that is nothing new. The powers of darkness are constantly at work to alienate man from anythi... ABSTRACT Chong Hung-Ho Asian Center for Theological Studies and Mission Folk religion in the Pakistani religious climate has rooted deeply since religions came into India. Social and cultural phobia must have their impact on the inhabitants. There has not been much academic research published or written on this burning issue. Folk religion, however, makes other Orthodox religions weaker and uncertain. Folk religion has become very common because materialistic thinking and situations demand and encourage believers to have instant solutions of their problems. When people face any problem or difficulty or hard times in their lives, even though they have religious beliefs and faith, soon they seek other ways to get release or comfort from such problems. This situation leads them to folk religion. The followers of those particular religionists start a new religion within a religion. “Folk” means people. “Folklore” is the study of the customs, beliefs, stories and traditions of a particular people. Folk religion seems a religion of the people, rather than an orthodox religion. Folk religions synthesize popular beliefs and practices, frequently animistic in nature, that are developed within cultures to handle problems in every day. Particularly in tribal contexts where people understand themselves to live in terms of an extend family, a clan, or a tribe having a distinct cultural heritage, folk religion frequently exists outside the fold of a major world religious tradition. Folk religion consists of beliefs, superstitions and cultural practices transmitted from generation to generation, in addition to the formally stated creeds and beliefs of a codified major religion. It is a burning issue that in Pakistan there a reavastmajority of people living under the influence of folk religion even though Pakistan is under the strong influence of Islam. Islam in Pakistan has two major sects, Sunni and Shi’i. This Islamic division has many rival sects. Shi’I Islam is older in origin than Sunn’ism and modeled much more closely on the political practices of Muhammad and the original four Caliphs. The question arises why people follow or adopt such attitudes towards or within their religions even though they have a perfect code of life in the form of religions both in Islam and Christianity. For example, Islam itself claims a complete code of life. Christianity claims, too. In this sense, there are conflicts in their practical lives they don’t live their lives according to what they have been taught. The basic reason why people have adopted folk religious practices has deep roots in Hinduism. In Sufism, which started in the eleventh century in Islam, many folk practices such as rituals and customs in Pakistan. From a missiological perspective it is a Christian duty to give awareness to the Pakistani Christians, and teach them that Christ is the only Way and Savior to meet their whole needs(John 14:6). In the Pakistani folk religion, it teaches that there are some personalities or holy men who are able to take people to God or have powers to listen to prayer, have abilities to solve people’s problems. In other words, they need something more than God which means God alone is not able to solve every problem. Here is the answer in the Bible; “Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words will be no means pass away” (Matthew 24: 35). God’s living words, the Scriptures become a prophecy that is still rock-solid in everyday. To summarize it, to see real change in members of folk religions they have to be brought to Jesus, so that they will be delivered from the powers of darkness, and become new creatures in Christ. Then, as God’s new humanity, they can move out in power into enemy territory and reclaim those who are still children of disobedience. The Pakistani Church is being challenged on all fronts. But that is nothing new. The powers of darkness are constantly at work to alienate man from anything and anyone...

기독교학교의 정체성에 근거한 종교학 교육과정의 문제점

박상진 한국기독교교육학회 2013 기독교교육논총 Vol.36 No.-

From 2014 onwards, according to the national Department ofEducation, the subject previously called ‘Life and Religion’ will changeits name to ‘Science of Religion’ in the high school curriculum. Christianschools wishing to teach the Christian faith according to their foundingphilosophy now must choose the subject ‘Science of Religion.’ However,the change from ‘Life and Religion’ to ‘Science of Religion’ does not stopat the mere title of the subject, but means that the identity of thesubject is also changed. Teaching religion is different from teaching ascience of religion. Teaching a science of religion emphasizes a cognitiveand objective understanding about religion rather than experiencingreligion itself. The change from ‘Life and Religion’ to ‘Science of Religion’raises problems in that it undermines the possibility of teaching ‘faith.’As is well known in Korean church history, H. G. Underwood and H. G. Appenzeller founded the first Christian schools in Korea in the1880s. At that time, the Bible was taught directly in the Christianschools. Although Christian schools were persecuted in time under therule of Japanese imperialism, Christian schools continued teaching theChristian faith on the basis of their founding philosophy. From the 4thRevision of the national curriculum after the high-school equalizationpolicy, the subject of ‘Religion’ has been included officially among the subjects of general education. From this time on, although Christianschools were private schools, the curriculum of religion in those schoolswere ruled by the curriculum policy of the government. And today,Christian schools are now required to teach ‘Science of Religion’ by thecurriculum policy, which is very different from the founding philosophyof Christian schools. This paper focuses on the problem of the ‘Science of Religion’curriculum on the basis of the identity of Christian schools. In order toanalyze this problem, I will study the history of change in thecurriculum of religious education, and analyze the meaning of and thelimitations imposed by the change to ‘Science of Religion’. Finally, I willsuggest alternative approaches to overcoming this problem of religiouscurriculum on the basis of the identity of Christian schools. 오는 2014년부터 고등학교 교육과정에 있어서 기존의 ‘생활과 종교’라는 명칭의 종교과목이 ‘종교학’이라는 명칭으로 바뀌게 된다. 기독교학교가 건학이념에 따라 ‘신앙교육’을 하기 위해서는 이 교양 과목 중 종교학을 선택하여 가르쳐야 하는 것이다. 그런데 ‘생활과 종교’에서 ‘종교학’으로의 교과목 변경은 단지 명칭의 변화가 아니라 정체성의 변화라는 중요한 의미를 담고 있다. 종교를 가르치는 것과 종교학을 가르치는 것은 동일한 것이 아니다. 종교학을 가르치는 것은 종교에 대한 지적 이해만을 강조하고 종교를 객관적으로 바라보도록 하기 때문에 종교를 경험할 수 없다. ‘생활과 종교’에서 ‘종교학’으로의 변화는 사실 특정종교의 신앙교육의 가능성을 거의 제거한 것이기 때문에 엄청난 변화라고 할 수 있다. 한국의 기독교학교는 1885년 이후부터 언더우드와 아펜젤러가 세운 경신학당과 배재학당의 개교로 시작되었는데, 초기 기독교학교는 자율적으로 직접 성경을 교수하였다. 일제시대에는 기독교학교에 대한 일제의 탄압이 있었으나 기독교학교는 종교계 사립학교로서건학이념에 근거하여 신앙교육을 지속해왔던 것이다. 그런데 평준화 정책 이후인 제4차교육과정 시기부터 교육과정에 교양 선택으로 종교과목이 개설되었고, 이때부터 국가가정해주는 종교과목 교과과정에 의해서 교육이 이루어지게 되었으며 정부와 기독교학교 간에 교육과정에 대한 이견으로 갈등이 심화되게 되었다. 그리고 이제 종교과목의 명칭이‘종교학’으로 바꾸어지게 되면서 기독교학교의 건학이념과는 너무나 상이한 종교교육이 이루어질 수밖에 없는 현실에 직면하게 된 것이다. 이 글은 ‘종교학’으로서 종교교육이 이루어지게 되는 것이 기독교학교의 정체성에 근거할 때 어떤 문제점을 갖는지를 파악하기 위한 것이다. 이 문제를 진단하기 위해서 종교교육에 있어서 교육과정 변천사를 파악하고, 종교학으로의 교육과정 변화가 구체적으로 무엇을 의미하며 어떤 한계성을 지니는지를 파악하려고 한다. 그리고 기독교학교의 정체성에 근거해 이 문제를 극복할 수 있는 대안들을 제시하고자 한다.

기독교는 서양의 종교인가? - 동서양 구별에 대한 비판적 고찰

권영우 ( Kwon Young-woo ),윤요성 ( Yoon Yo-sung ) 한국동서철학회 2018 동서철학연구 Vol.0 No.89

본 논문의 목적은 동서양의 구별을 비판하는 것이다. 이러한 비판을 위한 하나의 중요한 출발점으로 기독교를 살펴 볼 것이다. 그리고 기독교가 서양의 종교인가에 대한 물음을 던지고자 한다. 이 물음은 서로 상반된 방식으로 답변될 것이다. 이러한 두 가지 답변 속에서 서양은 동양을 통해서 그리고 동양은 서양을 통해서 자신의 정체성을 발전시켰다는 점을 확인할 수 있을 것이다. 기독교는 서양의 대표적인 종교로 여겨져 왔다. 그리고 여기서 서양은 유럽문화권을 의미한다. 그런데 사실 기독교는 유럽에서 발생한 종교가 아니라 서양이 동양이라고 간주한 지역에서 생겨난 종교다. 따라서 기독교의 발원지를 따지고 보면 기독교는 서양의 종교가 아니라 동양의 종교라고 보는 것이 더 타당할 것이다. 그럼에도 기독교는 서양의 종교임에 분명하다. 왜냐하면 서양문명에 기독교는 중요한 역할을 했을 뿐만 아니라 기독교가 꽃피운 지역도 서양이기 때문이다. 우리는 이와 같은 사실로부터 한 동서양의 구분이 과연 근본적으로 가능한가에 대한 물음을 가질 수밖에 없으며, 문화의 경계를 동서양으로 명백히 나눌 수 없다는 점에 대해 반성할 필요가 있을 것이다. 일반적으로 서양문명이 동양에 전파되어 동양의 근대화에 영향을 주었다고 하지만 반대로 동양문명이 서양에 전파되어 서양을 계몽시킨 사례도 무수히 많을 것이다. 문화는 동서양을 넘나들며 서로 영향을 주며 상호적으로 발전한다. 그러한 대표적인 예가 바로 서양의 종교도 동양의 종교도 아닌 보편종교로서의 기독교가 될 것이다. The Purpose of this paper is to criticize the differentiation between the East and the West. Christianity will be looked into as an important point in this critique. I will raise a question, i.e., “Is Christianity a Western Religion?” in this text. The question will be answered in two conflicting manners. In the two different answers, we can discern the fact that the Western civilization has formed its own identity through the Eastern and vice versa. Christianity has been regarded as a Western religion. In this paper, the Western civilization is defined as the whole of European cultural areas. Incidentally, Christianity did not originated in Europe, but it originated in Palestine which the Western civilization called the East or the Orient. Therefore, we can assert that Christianity is not a European religion, but an Eastern religion. Nevertheless, Christianity is certainly considered as a European religion because Christianity has strongly influenced the formation and development of the Western civilization. Also Christianity did flourished in the European civilization. We can regard Christianity not as a Western religion, but at the same time as a Western religion. Therefore, we can ask, if a vivid division between the East and the West is fundamentally possible? It is also required to reflect on the possibility of a distinct boundary between the Western and Eastern cultures. On one hand, they say in general that the Western civilization did extend its influences to the East and even that it enlightened Asia. On the other hand, there are many cases in which the Oriental civilizations influenced to develop the West and to enlighten the West. Eastern and Western cultures mutually affect each other and develop through their reciprocal effects. Such a representative example of the interactive exchange between the East and the West is Christianity as a universal religion. Thus, Christianity is not just a Western religion, nor is it just an Eastern religion.

21세기 종교에 대한 교양교육의 새로운 방향 - 배재대학교의 사례를 중심으로

안신 한국교양교육학회 2020 교양교육연구 Vol.14 No.1

본 논문은 기독교대학교의 종교교육이 지닌 특징과 한계를 교양교육의 관점에서 분석한다. 배재대학교를 사례로 선택하여 그 구성과 운영의 변화를 탐구한다. 21세기 종교교육은 특정한 종교의 교육에서 종교 일반과 종교들에 대한 교육으로 패러다임이 전환되었다. 종교전통을 이해하는 방식은 신앙과 문서 접근법에서 상황접근법으로 변하였다. 다문화종교교육에는 기독교 중심 교육, 일반종교 중심 교육, 특정종교 중심 교육, 다종교 중심 교육, 기독교가치 교육이 있다. 배재대학교의 종교교육은 채플참여와 교양교육으로 구성되는데, 채플참여는 종교의 교육이고 교양교육은 종교에 대한 교육이다. 특정한 종교의 교육에서 종교들에 대한 교육으로 변화하였다. <기독교정신과 아펜젤러인성>은 기독교가치에 대한 교육을 지향한다. 기독교대학교의 종교교양교육은 이웃종교에 대한 가용한 태도들을 다룬다. 배재대학교의 종교교육은 배타주의와 포괄주의의 단계를 지나서 다원적 다원주의의 입장을 추구한다. 공통기반보다는 차이를 중시하는 다원주의에 기반을 둔 종교교육이 이루어지고 있는데, 이 접근방식은 린드벡의 문화언어적 접근 모델에 가깝다. 배재대학교의 종교교양교육은 세 차례 교과서의 변화로 교육의 목적과 내용에 변화가 생겼다. <기독교의 본질>(1998)은 개종과 선교를 강조하는 종교의 교육을 추구하지만, <기독교와 현대사회>(2003)와 <기독교 다시 보기>(2014)는 기독교윤리와 기독교사회복지의 관점에서 사회문제를 인식하고 사회적 책임의 실천을 강조한다. 성경분석과 기초교리를 생활영성의 원리가 보강한다. 끝으로, 배재대학교의 사례를 토대로, 기독교대학교에서 가용한 종교에 대한 교양교육을 위한 현상학적 제안으로서 (1) 종교인과 종교적 세계관에 대한 공감적 이해, (2) 종교들에 대한 다문화 접근, (3) 제도 종교를 넘어서 영성으로의 확대를 제시한다. This paper deals with the characteristics and limitations of religious education in Christian University, analyzing the change of structure and operation in the case of Pai Chai University. In the 21st century, the paradigm of religious education shifted from the education of particular religion to the education of general religion and religions. Among the methods of understanding religious traditions, situation is more important than faith and text. In mutlcultural education, there are Christian education, education of general religion, education of particular religion, education of religions, and education of Christian values. The religious education of Pai Chai University consists of chapel attendance and general education. Chapel attendance is the education of religion, and general education is the education about religion. <Christian spirit and Appenzeller personality> seeks for the educaion of Christian values. The general education of religion in Christian university examines the viable attitudes to neighboring religions. The religious education of Pai Chai University constructs pluralistic pluralism beyond the stages of exclusivism and inclusivism, emphasizing differences rather than common ground. This approach is close to Lindbeck's cultural-linguistic model. The changes of textbooks published in 1998, 2003, and 2014 influenced the aims and contents of education: from conversion and mission to Christian ethics, Christian social welfare and life spirituality. In conclusion, based on the case of Pai Chai University, phenomenological suggestions for the viable general education about religion in Christian University are given: (1) empathetic understanding towards homo religiosus and religious worldview, (2) multicultural approaches to religion, and (3) the extension to spirituality beyond religion.

기독교학교 종교교육 유형에 따른 예비 종교교사의 지도 방안 - 경기도 A 대학교 기독교교육과 사례를 중심으로

장화선 한국실천신학회 2018 신학과 실천 Vol.0 No.62

본 연구는 우리나라 기독교학교 종교교사 양성 기관인 경기도 A 대학교 기독교교 육과의 예비 종교교사를 위한 지도 방안에 대한 모색이다. 이를 위하여 본 연구에서 는 먼저 개혁주의 신학자들이 언급한 종교의 본질을 서술한다. 기독교교육의 관점에 서 ‘종교’는 기독교를 의미하며, 기독교가 참된 종교이기 위해서는 하나님에 대하여 아는 것이 중요함을 논의한다. 하나님께서 모든 사람의 마음속에 종교의 씨앗을 주셨 기 때문에 기독교교육의 관점에서 종교교육은 교육의 주체와 대상인 학습자가 종교적 존재라고 간주한다. 우리나라 제 4차 교육과정에서 기독고등학교에서의 ‘종교’교과가 공인이 되었으며 제7차 교육과정에서 교과목명이 ‘생활과 종교’로 변경되었고 2011년 교육과정에서 교과목명이 ‘종교학’으로 변경되었다. 본 연구는 우리나라 기독고등학교 에서의 종교교육에 대한 유형을 ‘종파교육으로서의 종교교육’, ‘교양교육으로서의 종교 교육’, 그리고 ‘종교성 교육’으로 구분하고 이에 준하는 ‘종교’교과 수업의 사례를 서술 한다. 본 연구는 종교교사 양성 기관인 A 대학교 기독교교육과의 인재상, 교육목적 및 교육목표를 참고하여 예비종교교사를 위한 지도 방안을 다음과 같이 제시한다: ‘종교’교과 이론과 실무의 융합, ‘종교’교과 수업수행 능력의 함양, 상담 수행 능력의 함 양, 기독교학교 전도자로서의 사명감 확립, 기독교 신앙의 성숙. 현재 우리나라 교육 법 아래에서는 기독교학교에서 기독교적 신앙 교육을 온전히 실시하기 어렵기 때문에 사범계 기독교교육과는 종교교육 유형에 대응할 수 있는 하나님의 신실한 일꾼 양성 에 목표를 두어야 함을 논한다. This article examines the guidance strategies of preliminary religion teachers based on types of religious education in Christian schools. Preliminary religion teachers in this paper are students who belong to the department of Christian education in Theological College of A University. This article consists of the nature of religion and religious education in terms of Christian education, the change of religion subject in Christian school, types of religious education in Christian schools, and guidance strategies of preliminary religion teachers. This article explores that the nature of religion in light of Reformed theology is related to knowing God, loving God and worshipping God, and Christian teachers and students are religious being because God gave religious seed in their minds. The title of 'Religion' subject had been changed by the National Curriculum policy. 'Religion' subject was introduced in the 4th National Curriculum(1981.12.31), 'Lives and Religion' was acknowledged in the Seventh National Curriculum(2007.2.28 ~2009.12.23), and 'Science of Religion' was named in the Curriculum of the year 2011(2004.3.1.~). This study discusses the guidance strategies in light of the model of the department of Christian education, educational purposes and objectives as follows: the integration of theory and practices of 'Religion' subject, the development of teaching competency of 'Religion' subject, the cultivation of counseling ability, the establishment of calling as campus evangelist, and the maturity of Christian faith.

최병헌의 “종교” 개념 수용과 유교 인식: 「만종일련」을 중심으로

이행훈 ( Haenghoon Lee ) 한국철학사연구회 2015 한국 철학논집 Vol.0 No.46

한국 근대 종교 개념 형성 과정에서 ‘종’ㆍ‘교’로 일컬어졌던 재래 지식체계는 기독교를 중심으로 하는 근대 ‘종교’ 개념의 의미장에 포괄되거나 배제되었다. 19세기 들어 ‘religion’의 번역어로 ‘宗敎’가 정착된 것은 ‘언어 횡단적 수행’과 ‘문화의 상호 전유’의 일례로써 동아시아 근대 개념의 소통 과정을 탐색하는 데 중요한 열쇳말이다. 개념 수용 초기에 전통적인 기표와 혼용되다가 종교로 수렴되는 과정은 사회적 현실의 반영이자 기존의 인식틀을 변화시켜 다시 현실을 구축하는 개념의 운동이라고 할 수 있다. 최병헌의 「만종일련」은 전파와 수용의 단선적 구도에서부터 개념의 운동을 중심으로 종교 지형의 변화를 관찰하기에 유용하다. 그는 기독교의 절대적 가치를 주장하면서도 제종교가 복음에 이르는 과정에 도움을 줄 수 있는 것으로 파악한다. 이는 전통적인 ‘교’와 ‘학’ 관념의 연장선상에서 ‘종교’ 개념을 이해하고 있기 때문으로 판단된다. 동시에 유신론, 내세론, 신앙을 종교의 3대 관념으로 제시하고 제반 종교 평가 기준으로 삼은 것은 비연속적 측면이다. 비록 3대 관념 가운데 일부를 결여하더라도 종교로 인정했으나 기독교를 최상위의 고등종교이자 보편종교로 삼은 것은 분명하다. 기독교의 수용은 유학을 중심으로 했던 전통 지식 체계의 변형을 촉진하고, 근대적 지식 체계 형성에 기여했다. 특히 화지안의 「성해연원」을 저본으로 한 유교심성론 기술은 기독교적 관점에서 진행된 유교 지식체계의 재구축으로써 기독교 수용과 유교 위상의 변화를 보여준다. 「만종일련」은 비교종교학적관점에서 집필된 일종의 종교학개론서라고 할 수 있지만 ‘종’과 ‘교’가 포괄했던 종래의 다양한 의미망은 기독교의 종교 개념에 의해 축소될 수밖에 없었다. 이는 20세기 초반 동아시아의 ‘종교’ 개념 수용이 지닌 근대적 의의와 한계를 동시에 보여주는 하나의 사례이다. The traditional knowledge system of “jong (宗)” and “gyo (敎)” was assimilated into, or excluded from the semantic field of the Christian concept of “religion” in the modern conceptual formation of religion in Korea. Jonggyo (宗敎), which settled itself as a translation word of “religion” in the 19th century, is an example of “transligual practice” and “mutual appropriation of culture” and in itself a keyword to the understanding of the modern conceptual communication in East Asia. The process where it was mingled with traditional terms at its early stage and then converged into itself reflects social reality, and furthermore, it was a movement that changed the existing frame of perception and constructed reality again. Choe Byeong-heon”s Manjongillyeon shows well the change of religious topography at the time including the linear frame of propagation and acceptance and the conceptual movement. He considers that every religion contributes to the completion of the Gospel, though insisting on the absolute value of Christianity. It can be said that he understands “religion” as an extension of the traditional concept “gyo” and “hak (學)”. There is also an aspect of discontinuity as he proposes theism, theory of afterlife and faith as three concepts of religion, and regards these as a standard of appraisal for every religion. He approves some practices as religion though they lack part of the three concepts, but it is obvious that he consider Christianity as the highest and most universal religion. The acceptance of Christianity promoted the transformation of the traditional knowledge system on the basis of Confucianism, and contributed to the formation of the modern knowledge system. For example, the descriptions of the Confucian mental theory based on Hwa Ji An”s Seonghaeyeonwon is a kind of reconstruction of the Confucian knowledge system in view of Christianity, witnessing the acceptance of Christianity and the changes in the status of Confucianism. Manjongillyeon is a kind of handbook of comparative religion study, but it could not help that various networks of meaning the traditional “jong” and “gyo” hold are reduced by the Christian concept of religion. It shows both modern significance and limitation of East Asian conceptual acceptance of “religion” in the early 20th century.

신문화 운동기 중국 지식인의 종교논쟁

이재령(Lee, Jae-ryoung) 중국근현대사학회 2021 중국근현대사연구 Vol.92 No.-

This paper is to synthetically understand the analysis of intellects’ perception on religious studies and Christianity during the New Culture Movement which became the theoretical basement of the 1920’s anti-Christianity movement. As the revival of Confucianism during Yuan Shikai’s reign became active, opposition from Christianity and other religious circles immediately intensified. Students and intellects baptized from western sciences and thoughts refused Confucianism as state religion and claimed anti-religion. Through New Youths, Young China, Life, and so on, religious debates of the period can be grasped. Marxists defined religions as fantasies of future world and as opium of suppressed people, and asserted abolishment of them. Anarchists perceived religions as a kind of authoritative systems, and discerned that they infringed sciences and disturbed free developments of individual human beings. Scientism advocated that as all kinds of phenomena and problems among mankinds and in societies could be resolved within sciences, sciences should replace religions. Such anti-religious trends arose from opposition against Confucianism as state religion, and rapidly spread out within the upsurge of nationalism and anti-imperialism. Regarding religions, Liang Qichao and Cai Yuanpei Chen Duxiu differed in their opinions by pros and cons, but were same in the point in which they understood religions as productions of emotions. Cai Yuanpei, the naysayer, separated religions from the boundaries of morals and education, and replaced them with aesthetic education. Chen Duxiu recognized the greatness and existence of Jesus from the emotional perspective excluding the sacred, and cultivated deep-seated affection by himself. Liu Boming Liang Shumíng Tu Xiaoshi who were friendly toward religions claimed that the essence of religions as a transcendental inner tendency is placed in each individual’s mind, and that it ought to be cultivated and guided. At the same time, they saw that a religion can be a competence maintaining social orders and cultural spirits. For the result from the fact that western science and ration overwhelmed hereditary Confucian tradition, the assertion that science should replace religion became fierce. Hu Shi with a strong atheistic tendency admired Jesus, but he respected merely his personality and achievements, and Christianity was not his religion. Chen Duxiu also fiercely criticized the Confucian tradition, saying that Jesus" personality is admirable, but Christian doctrine is unreliable on scientific grounds. Among Chinese intellects in the early 20<SUP>th</SUP> century, science gradually became an icon, it became hard to accept the value of religions’ existence within the trust on all-mighty of science. Youths and students thought that all religions were unscientific superstitions, and that as religions deprived human-beings’ rational capabilities and restrained liberty, so they were the biggest obstacles against humans’ progress. Regarding such all-mightiness of science, there were warnings and criticisms from Ling Qichao, but they did not show much power. The religious debates during the New Culture Movement can be considered as the victory of science. The status of science after the establishment of the Republic of China was never doubtable. Nevertheless, through this debate Chinese intellects could cultivate perceptions on religions and the Mystic Learning, and came to be incapable to unilaterally underestimate or to lightly judge religions. Also, church leaders came to keep an eye on the turbulent reality of China and to actively respond toward later issues of anti-religion and anti-Christianity.

종교와 과학의 메타모포시스 ― 20세기 한국 기독교의 과학문명 해석과 그 변형

전철 한신대학교 신학사상연구소 2022 신학사상 Vol.- No.199

From the perspective of Christianity’s entry into Korean society, Christianity’s interpretation of the spirit of science secured the identity of a very important modern religion. This study focuses on how modern Korean Christianity interpreted scientific civilization when establishing its early identity. In particular, it pays attention to how the self-internalization and acceptance of Christianity’s science contributed to shaping the path of modern Korean Christianity. In order to analyze the dialogue with scientific civilization in modern Christianity and the subjectification discourse, this study will deal with four themes related to the interpretation of scientific civilization in Christianity. First, how did Christianity understand scientific civilization in the stage when modern Christianity made it debut in Korea in the early 20th century? Second, how did the interpretation of the scientific spirit contribute to certain conflicts and discourse formation in Christianity in the mid-20th century? Third, how did Christianity in the late 20th century approach and internalize scientific civilization? Fourth, what are the dialogue patterns and future tasks for Christianity and scientific civilization today? This study approaches the dialogical discourse between religion and science, and more specifically between Christianity and science, not from an external point of view but from the perspective of the internal relationships of the two, that is how each internalized the other. The analysis in this paper suggests that the discourse between Christianity and scientific civilization has historically been an important theme and driving force for the formation and deepening of Korean Christianity’s identity. Thus, this study pays attention to the fact that dialogue between scientific civilization and religion can be an important variable that opens up the future and the formation of Christian identity, that is its metamorphosis (μεταμόρφωσις). 기독교의 한국사회 진입의 관점에서 과학정신에 대한 기독교의 해석은 매우 중요한 근대종교의 정체성을 담보하고 있었다. 본 연구는 근대의 한국 기독교가 초기 정체성을 정립할 때 과학문명을 어떻게 해석하였는지를 주목한다. 특히 기독교의 과학에 대한 자기내면화와 수용이 근현대 한국 기독교의 경로를 형성하는데 어떻게 기여하였는지를 주목한다. 근대 기독교의 과학문명과의 대화와 주체화 담론에 대한 분석을 수행하기 위하여 본 연구는 기독교의 과학문명 해석에 관한 네 가지 주제를 다룰 것이다. 첫째, 20세기 초 근대 기독교의 유입의 단계에서 기독교는 과학문명을 어떻게 이해했는가. 둘째, 20세기 중반 기독교의 여러 대립과 담론 형성의 장에서 과학정신의 해석은 어떻게 기여되었는가. 셋째, 20세기 후반 기독교는 과학문명을 어떠한 방식으로 접근하고 내면화하는가. 넷째, 오늘날 기독교와 과학문명의 대화 양식과 미래 과제는 무엇인가. 본 연구는 종교와 과학, 기독교와 과학의 대화 담론을 외적 관계가 아닌, 양자 사이의 내적 관계와 내면화의 관점에서 접근한다. 본 연구는 기독교와 과학문명의 담론이 역사적으로 한국 기독교의 정체성 형성과 심화, 담론 형성의 매우 중요한 주제와 동력이었음을 분석한다. 그리하여 본 연구는 종교의 과학문명과의 대화가 끊임없이 형태변화(μεταμόρφωσις)하는 기독교의 정체성 형성과 그의 창조적 미래를 여는 중요한 변수가 될 수 있음을 주목한다.

20세기 초 한국 불교인들의 기독교에 대한 인식과 비판

김종인 ( Jong In Kim ) 한국사상문화학회 2010 韓國思想과 文化 Vol.54 No.-

사회진화론 등의 영향 하에서 20세기 초 한국불교인들은 당대를 종교경쟁의 시대로 인식하고 기독교를 가장 강력한 경쟁자로 인식하였다. 그러나 이 경우에도 불교인들은 기독교를 적대시하지는 않았으며 그들의 적극적인 포교 의지와 복지, 교육 등을 통한 포교 방법을 자기반성과 배움의 대상으로 삼았다. 기도교인들의 외형적인 활동에 대해서는 배우려는 자세를 취했지만 교리적인 면에서는 비판적인 자세를 취하였다. 진화론을 포함한 근대의 과학적 지식을 토대로 기독교의 창조론 등이 허구임을 비판하였다. 또한 근대 사회사상을 기초로 기독교의 절대신 개념이 민주주의와 상반되는 전근대적 전체주의적 이념과 상통하고 있다고 보고 있다. 불교 교리 자체와 기독교 교리를 직접 비교하여 기독교 교리의 한계와 모순을 드러내기도 하였다. 불교 교리의 심원함에 비해 기독교는 철학적으로 고려할 것이 없는 신에 대한 숭배만 있는 종교라고 보았다. 기도교의 구원관의 기반인 에덴동산에서의 존재 역시 창조된 것이며, 창조 즉 태어난 존재는 불교적 관점에서 보면 탄생은 곧 업보(業報)라고 비판하였다. 또 창조자 자체도 그 어떤 존재 관계에 의존할 수밖에 없는 것이므로 창조신 개념은 자기모순이라고 보았다. 당시 기독교에 대해 가장 많은 연구를 한 사람은 이능화이다. 이능화는 전통적으로 불교가 다른 사상을 대하는 방식인 회통론의 논리로 기독교와 불교가 서로 통할 수 있음을 논하였다. The introduction and inception of Christianity into Korea in the early 20thcenturyposedanewchallengetotheKoreanBuddhistsociety. The Buddhists of the time were stirred up by the Christians` efforts for their missionary works, and also tried to learn from their methodologies, such as building modern schools and hospitals. The Buddhists did not have good results from their learning. It was not easy to practice the methodology of the Christian missionary for the Korean Buddhists, who had lived in the different cultural environment. Nevertheless their efforts to learn from these pagans rather than to reject or blindly disregard is significant. Buddhists, on the other hand, believed that Christianity is immature thought system and cannot be rivaled to Buddhism. There are two basic reasons behind it that why Buddhist believed in this way. The first one is the modern thoughts scientific knowledge, including evolution theory, from the West. Buddhists recognized the inert conflict between modern scientific knowledge and Christianity, and criticized Christianity, standing on the view point of the former. Scientific knowledge is not the only tools from the modern West with which Buddhists criticized Christianity. Buddhists used modern social thoughts as well in their criticism on Christianity. Christianity is compared to despotism and Buddhism to democracy. Christianity became the religion of pre modern society, and Buddhism is the religion in accord with the modern thought. Christianity is blamed as the religion for ruling class. Christianity had shared her interest together with the ruling class in feudal Europe. It is Buddhist general understanding that Christianity cannot match to Buddhism in terms of their philosophies. From the Buddhist point of view, the god of creation, the core concept in Christianity, has critical defect. According to Buddhist perspective, the creator is the cause of man`s suffering. Yi Neunghwa is the most prolific researcher of the time. He made approach toward Christianity by synthesizing it with Buddhism, as the traditional Buddhist did toward other thought systems. He believes that Christianity and Buddhism are same in their ultimate sense.

모순론의 관점에서 종교중국화정책이 기독교에 미치는 영향

마민호 한국복음주의선교신학회 2019 복음과 선교 Vol.48 No.-

The drastic shift of religious policy under President Xi Jinping’s administration is an aftermath of a major contradiction of socialistic development. The main contradiction under Xi Jinping’s administration is drawn between the people’s demand for higher quality of life and the nation’s unbalanced and inadequate development. With the rapid economic development, religion has become a threat against social stability and the Chinese regime, weakening the form of socialist consciousness. Religion, once perceived as a minor contradiction, has now turned into a major socialcontradiction of China. Aimed to resolve the contradiction, Sinicization of Religion is a new political strategy of Xi Jinping in response to the growing threat of religion. Therefore, Sinicization of Religion has to address the root of the contradiction between socialist ideology and religion. The primary intention of Sinicization of Religion is to identify religion within the mold of socialist ideology. Under Sinicization of Religion, Protestant Christianity, one of the fastest-growing religions in size, has particularly become the main target for control. Sinicization of Religion on Protestant Christianity will entail increased pressure on Protestant theology and doctrines for change toward socialistic ideas, stricter control over Chinese house churches and Chinese mission organization, and lastly, restraint on interaction between Chinese churches and overseas churches. This study explains the impacts of Sinicization of Religion on Protestant Christianity and the increased level of control in China. 시진핑 시기의 급격한 종교정책의 변화는 사회주의 발전단계에서 주요모순의 변화에 의한 것이다. 시진핑 시기의 주요모순은인민들의 아름다운 삶에 대한 요구와 불균형하고 불충분한 발전 간의 모순으로 변화했다. 경제성장 과정에서 빠른 속도로 성장한 종교는 중국사회의 의식형태의 불균형을 가져와, 사회안정과 정권안전을 위협하는 수준의 문제로 부상하였다. 부차모순에서 주요모순의 차원으로 부상한 종교문제를 새로운 시대의 요구에 맞게 처리하려는 정책이 시진핑의 종교중국화이다. 그래서 종교중국화는 사회주의와 종교 간의 모순을 ‘근본적’으로 해결해야 하는 정책이다. 종교중국화의 핵심은 종교를 사회주의에 적극 적용시켜서 사회주의핵심가치를 실천하는 사회주의 종교로 변화시키는 것이다. 이 정책은 일교독대(一敎獨大)의 위험으로 성장한 기독교에 초점이 맞추어져 있다. 이러한 종교중국화는 기독교에 대해, 우선, 기독교의신학과 교리에 대한 정부의 통제강화와, 둘째, 건강한 중국교회의발전에 대한 어려움의 심화와, 셋째, 해외선교단체의 활동과 해외교회와의 교류에 대한 통제강화 등의 영향을 미칠 것이다. 본 연구는 이러한 종교중국화가 기독교에 미치는 영향과 종교에 대한 강화된 통제에 대하여 설명하고 있다.