What explains educational quality differences between rural and urban areas : evidence from Latin America

양희수 Graduate School of International Studies, Korea Un 2018 국내석사

In Latin American and Caribbean region, disparities between urban and rural areas are important social issues. To measure students' educational level in the region, LLECE collects test scores from 15 countries and one sub-national state by conducting TERCE. Using standardized test scores of language and mathematics of sixth grade student, this study examines the educational gap between urban and rural areas. Student, household, teacher, class, school, and community related variables are selected and used for the analyses. Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method, educational gap between urban and rural areas in Latin America and Caribbean region is observed. Overall regression results show that the value of urban coefficient goes down when adding one more level of variables both in language and mathematics. Respectively, 59% and 62% of the gap between urban and rural test scores in language and mathematics is due to less favorable student and household level characteristics. Analyses present that student, household, school, and community level variables are less favorable characteristics to the quality of education in rural areas. For teacher and class related factors, no big difference between two areas can be found. Though this study has certain limitations to overcome, it can imply that eradication of rural poverty and investments in rural schools and community development are key solutions for the reduction of educational gap between urban and rural areas.

Monitoring rural territorial development in Colombia 2018-2022 within the post-conflict framework

아벨로 아빌라 클라우디아 마르셀라 서울시립대학교 국제도시과학대학원 2024 국내석사

Rural development is a crucial component of peacebuilding in Colombia after decades of armed conflict. The objective of this study is to monitor rural development in Colombia in the period between 2018 and 2022. Although, given the scarcity of information at the municipal level this research does not directly evaluate the implementation of the comprehensive rural reform contemplated in the 2016 peace accords, the timeframe provides an overview of the results of its first years of implementation at the departmental level through the comparison of a Territorial Rural Development Index (IDRT) that contemplates five different categories: infrastructure, institutional management, economy, inclusion and ecosystems. The IDRT results for the 32 departments analyzed indicate that there were no significant changes in rural development during the period evaluated. It can also be seen that the historical gaps between departments have not only remained the same but are tending to widen. Likewise, there is evidence of significant lags in terms of gender, ethnicity, and territorial approach, which would be related to the materialization of risks identified in qualitative research previously conducted by other authors. 농촌 개발은 수십 년간의 무력 충돌 이후 콜롬비아에서 평화를 구축하는 데 중요한 요소이다. 본 연구의 목적은 2018년부터 2022년까지 콜롬비아의 농촌개발을 조사하는 것이다. 비록 본 연구에서는 행정구역 중 군 단위의 정보 부족으로 2016년 평화 협정에서 고려된 종합적인 농촌 개혁의 직접적인 시행을 평가하지 않는다. 그러나 해당 기간 동안 국토 농촌 개발 지수(IDRT)를 활용하여 다섯 가지 범주인 인프라, 기관 관리, 경제, 포용성, 및 생태계를 비교함으로써 행정구역 도 단위 수준에서의 최초 몇 년 동안의 시행 결과를 개요로 제시한다. 32개 도의 농촌 개발 지수(IDRT) 결과 분석에 따르면, 해당 기간 동안 농촌 개발에 큰 변화가 없었다. 또한 도 간의 전통적인 격차가 그대로 유지되면서 확대되는 경향이 나타났다. 마찬가지로, 이전에 다른 저자가 수행한 질적 연구에서 지적한 위험의 구체화와 관련이 있을 수 있는 성별, 민족 및 지역적 접근 측면에서 상당한 지연이 있다는 증거가 있었다.

도농 간 중학생 학력격차 감소에 대한 학교효과 연구

박성호 서울대학교 대학원 2011 국내박사

(The) impact of people's livelihood fiscal expenditure on urban and rural consumption gap in China

Qi, Di Graduate School of International Studies, Korea Un 2019 국내석사

In the past thirty years, with the rapid economic development in China, the residents’ living standards have also made a qualitative leap. What followed was that the consumption gap continued to expand during the economic growth process. It is of great theoretical and practical significance to study the causes of the widening consumption gap between urban and rural residents and propose effective policy recommendations. Using the experience data of 31 provinces and the eastern, central and western regions between 1998 and 2017, based on the perspective of people's livelihood, this paper focuses on the part of people’s livelihood fiscal expenditure, and studies its influence and mechanism on the urban and rural residents' consumption gap through regional level and national level. The results show: social security and employment expenditure helped to narrow the consumption gap between urban and rural residents; Education and health care expenditure expanded the gap, while science and technology and environmental protection expenditure have no significant impact on the urban-rural consumption gap. Therefore, on the basis of steadily increasing the scale of fiscal expenditure on people's livelihood, the government should pay more attention to the optimization of expenditure structure and the balance among regions, and improve the efficiency of fiscal expenditures on people's livelihood in reducing the consumption gap between urban and rural residents.

Research on the effect of traditional inclusive finance and digital inclusive finance on income gap between urban and rural residents

Huang Xin Sungkyunkwan University 2021 국내석사

배경: 디지털 금융과 전통적인 금융의 급속한 발전으로 지난 수십 년 동안 급속도로 확대되고 있다. 2010 년부터 중국에서 디지털화된 포용적 금융이 신속적인 성장하고 있다.따라서 수많은 선행연구에서 디지털 금융포용하고 전통 금융포용의 성장은 도시와 농촌 주민의 소득 격차를 좁게 만든다고 하는 결과가 나왔다. 선행 논문은 전통적인 금융과 디지털 금융을 결합하는 것이 어떻게든 서로를 보완할 수는 있지만 그들 사이의 관계를 깊게 발견하지는 못한다는 것을 발견했다..따라서 이 논문은 2011~2018 년 패널 데이터를 활용하고 디지털 금융포용과 전통 금융포용을 독립 변수로서 도시와 농촌 주민의 소득 차이에 미치는 영향을 연구하게 된다. 더욱이, 전통적인 금융포용과 소득 격차의 상관 계수를 분석하는 것은 디지털 금융포용의 여러 단계에 기초한다. 또한 문턱모형을 적용하여 전통적 금융포용의 여러 단계에서 디지털금융포용과 소득격차근거의 상관계수를 추정한다. 목적: 전통 금융포용과 디지털 금용포용은 도시과 농촌의 빈부격차에 대한 영향을 연구한다. 또한 이번 연구는 전통적인 금융포용의 발전수준에 따라 도시와 농촌주민의 소득차이에 대한 디지털 금융포용의 역할이 다른지 여부를 규명하는 데 초점을 맞추고 있다. 그리고 중국에서 전통적인 금융포용이 디지털 금융포용의 발전수준이 다르는 경우에서 소득 격차에 더 큰 영향을 미칠 수 있는지 여부를 알아내는 것이다. 방법: Stata 에 통해서 패널 회귀 분석 모델 하고 임계값 모델을 검증한다. 결과 :(1)디지털금융포용과 전통금융포용은 농촌 주민의 소득격차에 대한 영향을 보면 지역적 차이가 있다. (2)포용적 디지털 금융포용을 문턱값으로 하는 경우에서 전통적인 포용적 금융은 소득 격차에 더블 문턱 효과가 있다. 더욱이 디지털 금융포용지수가 상승하면서 전통적인 금융포용도 빈부격차를 더욱 벌리게 된다. (3)게다가 전통 금융포용을 문턱값으로 하는 경우에서 디지털금융포용은 소득격차에도 더블 문턱의 효과가 있다. 디지털금융포용이 전통적인금융포용을 성장하는 경우에서 빈부격차를 효과적으로 줄일 수 있다는 결과를 보인다. Background: The rapid development of digital finance and traditional inclusive finance is expanding quickly in the past decades. Significantly, digital finance is rising rapidly in China after the 2011 year. Some articles discovered that the growth of inclusive digital finance and traditional inclusive finance boosts the income gap between urban and rural residents becomes narrow. Some articles found that combining traditional finance and digital finance could complement each other somehow but do not profoundly discover the relation between them. This article will use digital finance and traditional finance as the independent variable to discover their impact on the income differences between urban and rural residents using panel data during 2011-2018 in 31 provinces. Besides an alyzing the correlation coefficient of the traditional inclusive finance and income gap is based on a different stage of inclusive digital finance. It also estimates the correlation coefficient of inclusive digital finance and income gap base on a different stage of traditional inclusive finance by applying the threshold model. Purpose: It studies the effects of traditional financial inclusion and digital inclusion on the urban and rural income gap. The study focuses on discovering whether the role of inclusive digital finance on the income differences between urban and rural residents would be different based on different development levels of traditional inclusive finance. Moreover, to discover whether the traditional inclusive finance would affect the income gap more significantly as the different development levels of inclusive digital finance in China. Method: estimation of Panel regression model and the Threshold model through using Stata. Result: There is a regional disparity between inclusive digital finance and traditional inclusive finance on the rural-urban income gap. Traditional inclusive finance has a double threshold effect on the income gap, with inclusive digital finance as the threshold value. Moreover, as the digital financial inclusion index rises, traditional financial inclusion will widen the gap between the rich and the poor. Besides, inclusive digital finance also has a double threshold effect on the income gap with the traditional inclusive finance as the threshold value. It means digital inclusive finance will effectively reduce the gap between the rich and the poor by improving traditional inclusive finance.

중국농촌 노동력의 도농 간 수입격차에 대한 영향

왕결 전북대학교 일반대학원 2014 국내석사

The movement of the rural labor force is one of the common phenomenon of China's industrialization and urbanization. China's massive labor moving has a big impact on the economic and social development.Recent the research about import mobile labor force of the impact of the gap between rural and urban areas, the attention of academ is not small.Sharply into the rural labor force become one of the most important features of the Chinese economy.Most of the recent studies of the influence of rural labor flow towards into the size of the workforce,the reasons or social welfare and the relationship between industrial structure and urban and rural, or effect of the income gap is not involved. Now this article will study on the social economy of the rural labor force mobile view ,at the same time the characteristic of the movement of the rural labor force the influence caused by the income gap between rural and urban areas is analyzed. First of all, the research of Chinese scholars both at home and abroad relevant theoretical and empirical analysis results as the foundation, the basis of research and provide a theoretical basis. And the status quo and characteristics of rural labor force, the status quo of the household income gap between rural and urban areas, China's household registration system, the labor market, rural, education, social security and the existence of variables such as industrial structure, China's rural labor force into the income gap between rural and urban areas, analyze the reason for the birth. The present situation and cause analysis is considered to be research based on the empirical analysis. The results of the oretical and empirical analysis can be summarized as follows. China's rural labor flow actually expand the family's income gap between urban and rural areas. thereason is that China's special household registration system, the labor market segmentation, the lack of human capital, low development of rural economy, the development of the industrial structure, etc.But the rural labor flow through the education in rural areas and the development of non-agricultural sector (especially the service industry) see family is able to eliminate the income gap between urban and rural areas.But at present, China's household registration system to improve the unreasonable, policy authorities need hard working.

Effect of Education on the Urban-Rural Income Gap in Korea

ZHANG HE 경희대학교 대학원 2019 국내석사

Although the income level of Korean residents has increased substantially, the income gap between urban and rural areas is still large. Reducing the income gap between urban and rural areas is of significance to reducing the current gap between the rich and the poor. This paper used the Korean Labor & Income Panel Study from 2003 to 2017 to investigate the impact of education on urban and rural income. Based on the econometric model, the overall characteristics of the rate of return on education and the differences between urban and rural areas are estimated. The results show that there is a significant positive correlation between education and wage income in urban and rural areas, that is, the higher the level of education, the higher the wage income level. More so the return to education in urban areas is higher than that in rural areas.

What is behind the income disparity in China? : the determinants, gap, and distribution of urban and rural income

Su, Biwei Graduate School, Korea University 2013 국내석사

China’s rapid growth has been accompanied by unbalanced development domestically, transforming itself from one of the most egalitarian economics to one of the most unequal countries in Asia. This thesis intends to have a full-scale investigation of the determinants, gap and distribution of urban and rural income in China. Four waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) household data, 2000, 2004, 2006 and 2009 are used in this research. Several analytical methods have been addressed: OLS and quantile regressions are used to find the income determinants; Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition is employed to study about the income gap; and stochastic dominance test is applied for understanding the urban-rural income distribution. Results show that urban-rural income disparity exists and increases from 2000 to 2004 but decreases from 2004 to 2009. Education and occupation are essential to determine one’s income level and the effects of those two factors are heterogeneous for people at different percentiles of the income distribution. For the urban residents, education is more valued for those who are at the higher quantiles of income. For the rural residents, the tertiary education exerts substantial benefits for those who are below the 95th percentile of the income distribution. People who do non-farm activities have much lower returns than people with other occupations. This is especially obvious for the people at the left tail of the income distribution. Results of decomposition show that around 20% of the income gap is unexplained by individuals’ attributes. We find this unexplained part can either enlarge or narrow the urban-rural income disparity. Last, the stochastic dominance test suggests urban-rural income disparity is mainly caused by differences between two groups in the lower tail of the income distribution, rather than differences in the upper tail.

Chinese "Sannong" problem : focusing on its causes and governmental discussions

박연경 서울大學校 國際大學院 2007 국내석사

중국 삼농문제에 관한 연구 : 신 농촌건설을 중심으로

陶健龍 한국해양대학교 대학원 2016 국내석사

중국은 세계에서 인구가 가장 많은 나라이자 농업 대국으로 알려져 왔다. 농업은 중국 경제의 근간이며 농민은 중국 내 다양한 집단 가운데 가장 영향력이 큰 구성원이다. 농업이 중국의 정치·경제·사회에 미치는 영향은 매우 크다. 하지만 이와 동시에 농업, 농촌, 농민 문제가 오랫동안 중국의 경제발전을 제약해왔다. 삼농문제는 중국의 현대화 과정에서 발생한 독특한 문제이다. 이는 농민 소득, 농촌 환경, 농업 발전과 밀접하게 연관될 뿐만 아니라 중국의 경제 발전에도 영향을 미치고 있다. 본 논문은 중국의 삼농문제를 고찰하고 이를 해결하기 위해 중국정부가 2005년부터 추진한 신 농촌건설사업의 성과를 농민소득, 농촌교육, 농촌의료위생이라는 지표를 통해서 확인해 보고자 한 것이다. 분석결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 농민 1인당 소득은 2005년 3,255위안에서 2014년에는 9,892위안으로 3.0배로 증가하였다. 또한 같은 기간 도농주민소득 격차도 농촌주민소득 대비 도시주민소득이 3.2배에서 2.9배로 감소하였다. 둘째, 중국은 개혁개방 이래 농촌지역에서는 교육수준이 전반적으로 낮고 도시와 농촌지역의 교육격차도 존재하고 있다. 신 농촌건설 실시 후에 농촌경제가 발전하는 동시에 교육수준도 큰 폭으로 성장하고 있다. 고등학교 졸업생 진학률은 2005년 76.3%에서 2014년 90.2%로 증가하였다. 2005년 전국재정교육지출 5,161.08억 위안 불과했으나 2014년에는 26,420.58억 위안 약 5.1배로 증가하였다. 셋째, 중국은 농촌의 의료위생이 낙후되어 있다. 개혁개방 이래 정부는 농촌 의료위생을 강화하기 위한 많은 대책을 실시하여, 농촌에서 위생실 만들고 농민들이 의료서비스를 받지 못하는 상황을 개선하였다. 2014년 농촌에 있는 위생실 개수는 2005년도에 비해 65,410개 증가하여, 총 648,619개를 달했다. 그리고 신형 농촌합작의료제도의 실시를 통해 근본적으로 농민의 의료비용 문제를 해결하고자 했다. 2003년 신형 농촌 합작의료에 참가하는 농민에게 주는 보조금은 10위안의 불과했으나 2013년 농민들에게 주는 보조금은 약 240~280위안까지로 증가하였다. 1978년 개혁개방 이래 중국 농촌건설은 역사적인 발전을 이루었다. 특히 본 논문에서 고찰하였듯이 삼농문제를 해결하기 위해 중국정부가 제출한 신 농촌건설사업을 통해 농촌의 경제발전 방면에도 커다란 성과를 달성하였다. 하지만 전체적으로 보면 농업과 농촌의 발전은 많은 도전과 어려움에 직면해 있는데, 첫째, 농촌에 대한 자금투입이 농촌의 발전 속도에 비해 매우 부족하여 농업기술수준과 생산방식이 낙후되어 있는 점, 둘째, 농촌발전을 위한 인재가 부족하고 잉여 노동력이 증가하고 있은 점, 셋째, 신형합작의료제도의 보장범위가 좁고 보장수준이 낮아 의료혜택을 받지 못하는 농민들이 많다는 점, 넷째, 단편적인 경제발전의 중요성을 강조하여 농촌의 생태환경과 자원의 고갈이 초래된다는 점 등을 들 수 있다.