미국내 K-Beauty산업 분석과 인지도

김지인 건양대학교 2018 국내석사

According to data regarding Korean imports and exports, Korean cosmetics have shown an annual growth of 22.1% and its volume of exports has grown six times over the past 10 years. The importing countries of Korean cosmetics have diversified from the traditional East Asian countries such as China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan to other countries such as United States, Japan, Singapore, Russia, Australia, and 160 other countries. (Zhao Xue, 2016). As shown in the data, the Korean Beauty industry has been globalized over the years and new words such as K-Beauty (Korean- Beauty) derived from such trend demonstrate the increasing influence of Korean Beauty Industry in the global market. (IBK Economic Research Institute, 2017). Despite the concentration of K-Beauty industry in the Asian markets, K-Beauty industry has been increasing its exports to western countries, specifically the United States. The volume of exports to United States has increased from 57.2 million dollars to 188 million dollars in 2015, showing a 230% growth over a five-year span, thus making United States the third largest buyer of Korean Beauty Products. Therefore, by researching and analyzing the increasing trends of K-Beauty’s influence and recognition within the United States market, the recognition of the K-Beauty industry will increase and new marketing methods of industry export will be presented. Related articles, newspapers, reports, data, and published materials were used to analyze the current K-Beauty market penetration, and empirical research was conducted by surveying 210 college students who reside in the eastern region of United States. The analyses derived from the research are the following: First, according to the K-Beauty market penetration research, the Korean cosmetics industry have been showing strong growth as its imports increased from 57.2 million dollars in 2011 to 188 million dollars in volume of products imported, showing 230% growth over a five-year span. As a result, in 2016, South Korea became the 5th largest contributor in American cosmetics industry and experienced a 45.7% growth in total sales. Moreover, within the United States market, well known distributors of cosmetic products now offer K-Beauty products both on and off line, which demonstrates the increased accessibility of K-Beauty products in the market. Second, the participants of the survey were 85 % female, and the demographics of the participants were 44% Caucasian, 44% Asian, and 10.7% other. 51.3% of the participants responded that they spend less than $30 a month on beauty care. Third, 55.6% of participants responded that they were familiar with the K=Beauty Brand, suggesting that K-Beauty has made significant strides in reaching everyday Americans. Also, 52.3 % of the participants who were familiar with K-Beauty responded that K-Beauty were synonymous to Korean Cosmetics. 63.6% of the participants responded that the most common method of their exposure to K-Beauty was through an online medium such as the internet. 30.5% of the participants have tried Korean celebrities style and the proportion of K-Beauty M/up participants were the highest at 31.8%. Beauty tours can be expected to further enhance K-Beauty’s presence within the United States. Fourth, 85% of the participants of the survey used basic cosmetics with a focus on moisturizing their skin and 75.4% of the participants used make up cosmetics with a focus on skin expression. Moreover, 44.9 % of the participants had previous experience of purchasing K-Beauty cosmetics, and 87.9% of such individuals used professional beauty warehouses or online stores to purchase the products. Asian Americans had more experience purchasing K-Beauty cosmetics compared to Caucasians, a phenomenon that proved to be statistically significant (p<.001). Also, the proportion of individuals who have tried Korean celebrities style was higher for Asian Americans compared to Caucasians and such trend was statistically significant as well. (p<.001). Fifth, 50% of the K-Beauty purchases were made by recommendations from family and friends, and the most common location to shop K-Beauty products were professional stores at 50% followed by online stores at 37.9%. 83.8% of the participants believed that the pricing of the K-Beauty products was adequate, suggesting that pricing is an appealing factor for the K-beauty products. Satisfaction among K-beauty product users were researched to be high and satisfactory. Based on possible improvements for K-Beauty products different age groups, the most common suggestion among all age groups were the need for more aggressive and comprehensive marketing campaign. Age groups under 25 identified the need for more diversified product lines as well. It can be inferred that the younger age group is more sensitive towards the fast-changing trends thus calling for diversified product lines that could meet their needs. Based on the research, in the United States, alarming proportion of individuals identified and limited K-Beauty to Korean cosmetics. Moreover, despite the continued increase in K-Beauty product exports, the brand recognition was relatively low. However, more than 90% of the individuals wishing to visit Korea if given the chance coupled with the continued attention towards Korean celebrities’ styles pose an optimistic future for K-Beauty. One of the growing concerns in the industry is the relative difficulty in exporting the necessary labor force in order to successfully implement the comprehensive beauty service industry due to the VISA restrictions and other factors. Once such factors can be resolved, it will further catapult the K-Beauty brand in the United States market. Therefore, in order to stabilize the exporting of K-Beauty industry, the brand recognition of K-Beauty and exporting of necessary labor force are crucial and needed. Due to United States’ geographic limitations, the research was mainly conducted in the eastern part of the country. Moving forward, with more comprehensive research in different regions of United States, K-Beauty industry will become more diversified and spread in the United States beauty industry. 한국 수출입무역통계 자료에 따르면 한국 화장품은 약 22.1%의 연평균 성장률을 보이며 10년 간 6배 이상으로 수출 규모가 커졌으며, 수출 대상국도 중국, 홍콩, 대만 등의 중화권 국가를 넘어 미국, 일본, 싱가포르, 러시아, 호주 등 160개국으로 확대되었다(Zhao Xue, 2016). 이렇듯 국내의 뷰티 산업은 한류를 통해 전 세계로 소개되면서 점차 글로벌화 되었으며, K-Beauty(Korean-Beauty)라는 신조어가 등장하면서 찾아온 “K-Beauty 열풍”은 점차 글로벌 시장에서의 영향력이 증가하였다(IBK경제연구소, 2017). K-Beauty산업의 진출 비중은 아시아국가에 치중되어 서구권 진출이 저조한 상황이지만 최근 서구권 국가 중 미국으로의 K-Beauty화장품 수출액이 점차 증가하면서 2011년 5,722만 5천 달러에서 2015년 1억 8,851만 9천 달러로 5년간 약 230% 증가하여 한국 화장품 주요 수출국 3위를 차지하였다. 따라서 서구권 중 K-Beauty 영향력이 증가추세인 미국 내 K-Beauty산업의 진출현황과 K-Beauty 산업에 대한 인지도를 분석하여 K-Beauty 인지도를 높이고 서구권 국가에 K-Beauty산업 수출을 위한 방안을 모색하고자 하였다. 관련 논문, 신문, 각종 간행물 및 보고서, 통계자료 등을 바탕으로 미국 내 K-Beauty산업의 진출현황을 분석하였고, 실증적 연구는 미국 동부에 거주하는 대학생 및 연구원을 210명 대상으로 설문조사를 실시하였으며 본 연구의 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 미국 내 K-Beauty산업의 진출현황을 분석한 결과, 현재 화장품 산업이 지속적으로 성장하고 있어 2011년 미국 수출액 5,722만 5천 달러에서 2015년 1억 8,851만 9천 달러로 5년간 약 230% 증가해 뚜렷한 성장세를 보였다. 그 결과 한국은 2016년 미국의 화장품 주요 수입국 중 5위에 올랐으며, 수출액이 전년대비 45.7% 증가하였다. 또한 미국내 대중적인 화장품 유통 매장에서 온라인·오프라인으로 K-Beauty 화장품을 판매하고 있어 K-Beauty의 접근이 쉬워졌음을 알 수 있었다. 둘째, 인지도 조사 결과 대상자 성별은 85%가 여성이었고, 대상자들의 51.3%가 월평균 $30미만을 외모관리를 위하여 소비하고 있었으며, 국적은 아메리칸이 44.4%, 아시안 44.9%, 기타 10.7%로 아메리칸과 아시안의 비율이 비슷하였다. 셋째, K-Beauty를 알고 있는 응답자는 55.6%로 K-Beauty가 미국에서 생소하게 여겨지는 것이 아니며 소비자에게 많은 접근을 한 것으로 사료된다. 또한 K-Beauty를 알고 있는 대상자들의 52.3%가 K-Beauty를 한국의 화장품이라고 응답하였으며 K-Beauty를 알게 된 경로는 온라인을 통해서가 63.6%로 가장 많은 비율을 나타냈다. 한국 연예인의 스타일을 따라 해본 경험이 있는 대상자는 30.5%였으며 그 중 K-Beauty M/up을 경험한 대상자가 31.8%로 가장 높았다. 화 관광을 통해 K-Beauty를 발전 시킬 수 있을 것이라고 판단된다. 넷째, 기초 화장품을 사용하는 사람의 비율은 85%로 제품 사용 시 수분에 가장 비중을 두었고, 메이크업 화장품 사용하는 사람의 비율은 75.4%로 피부표현에 가장 비중을 둔다고 답하였다. 또한 K-Beauty 화장품 구매 경험이 있는 사람은 44.9%였으며, 이들 대상자들의 87.9%가 화장품 전문매장과 온라인을 이용하여 화장품을 구매하였다. K-Beauty 화장품 구매 경험은 아시안이 아메리칸 보다 K-Beauty 화장품 구매 경험이 많은 것으로 나타났으며 통계적으로 유의미한 차이가 있는 것으로 나타났다(p<.001). 또한 한국 연예인의 스타일을 따라 해본 경험은 아시안이 아메리칸보다 경험이 많은 것으로 나타났으며 통계적으로 유의미한 차이가 있는 것으로 분석 되었다(p<.001). 다섯째, K-Beauty 화장품 구매 이유는 주변의 추천이 50%로 가장 많았으며, K-Beauty 화장품을 구매하기 위하여 방문하는 장소로는 화장품 전문매장이 50%, 온라인37.9% 등으로 나타났다. 가격은 적당하다는 응답이 83.3%로 K-Beauty 화장품 가격은 적당하다고 생각하고 있어 구매결정에 긍정적인 영향을 줄 것으로 유추해 볼 수 있다. K-Beauty 화장품의 사용 만족도는 높게 분석되며, 광고매체를 통한 마케팅이 개선방안으로 나타났다. 연령에 따른 K-Beauty 화장품 개선점을 알아본 결과 모든 연령대에서 광고매체를 통한 마케팅이 개선되어야 한다는 응답이 가장 높았고, 다양한 종류의 제품 출시를 답한 연령은 대부분 만25세 미만이었다. 만25세 미만은 유행에 민감하고 트렌드 주도 및 브랜드에 개방적 성향을 가지고 있기 때문에 다양한 종류의 제품 출시를 개선점으로 꼽은 것으로 판단된다. 이상의 연구를 종합해 볼 때 미국에서는 K-Beauty의 개념을 한국 화장품으로 한정지어 생각하는 대상자들의 비율이 높았다. 또한 화장품 수출액이 지속적으로 증가하고 있으나 아직까지 K-Beauty의 인지도가 현저히 높다고는 볼 수 없었다. 그러나 점차적으로 한국의 연예인의 스타일에 관심도 많아지고 한국을 방문하고 싶은 대상자가 90%가 넘는 것으로 보아 K-Beauty산업에 대한 관심도는 앞으로 더 증가할 것이다. 다만 인력 수출에 있어서 VISA 등 다양한 문제로 뷰티 서비스 산업의 정착에 어려운 점이 있고 이러한 문제가 해결되어야 미국에서의 K-Beauty산업의 범위가 넓어질 수 있을 것이라고 사료된다. 따라서 이상의 결과를 바탕으로 미국내 K-Beauty산업의 진출을 안정화하기 위해서는 K-Beauty 에 대한 인지도를 향상과 화장품을 적용할 수 있는 뷰티서비스인력의 수출방안이 필요함을 알 수 있었다. 미국의 지리적 특성상 다양한 지역을 조사할 수 없었던 한계점이 있었으며, 앞으로의 연구에는 미국의 지역을 고려한 종합적 연구가 이루어진다면 K-Beauty의 수출 다각화와 더불어 미국내 확산에 영향을 미칠 수 있을 것으로 사료된다.

駐韓美軍의 軍事的 役割變化 展望과 韓國의 對應方案

김준 忠南大學校 平和安保大學院 2005 국내석사

Since the end of the Korean War in 1953, the United States military forces has been stationed in the Republic of Korea and has functioned as the core element on detering war in the Korean peninsula, preventing possible North Korean provocations, and preserving peace not only in Korea but also in Northeast Asia. But shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the East European Bloc, the entire international security environment had been changed and it put the so-called Cold War era into an end. The international society has transformed from a bi-polar system into a multi-polar system, and after the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center on 9.11, a uni-multipolar system. These changes in the international system are now acting as a factor altering the military role of the United States Forces stationed in Korea. From the American point of view, U.S. Forces in Korea was a major means to bock and contain Soviet expansion in Northeast Asia during the Cold-War era. However, from the Korean point of view, it was not only an element to guarantee peace and prevent a war commenced by the North Koreans but also complemented the Korean military forces itself, helped train and equip the troops. It also contributed to the economic development and growth of the Republic of Korea, for it made possible for the Korean people to focus their endeavor on various economic fields instead of concentrating all of its efforts and potentials to prepare for a North Korean major attack. As far as North Korean military threat exists, the U.S. Forces in Korea provides significant security and economic interest to South Korea. The change in the international system after the breakdown of the communist sphere urged the United States to change their security and military strategy, because their primary threat, the Soviet Union, no longer existed and its remaining "containment and deterrence" strategy became ineffective. Instead of preparing for a conventional and/or a nuclear war against a massive military force such as the Soviet military, the United States had to focus on and prepare for regional conflicts, economic and transnational threats. This induced the american military to reduce conventional military troops deployed throughout the world and transform to counter the future threats. However, after the unprecedented terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, the Bush administration declared war on terror and attacked Afghanistan which supported the terrorist group Al-Queda leaded by Osama bin Laden. The main contents of the new security strategy of the Bush adminstration can be summarized as follows: Strengthening homeland defense, conducting preemptive war against potential terrorist countries and/or groups if necessary, establishing Missile Defense(MD), and developing nuclear & non nuclear capabilities to acquire flexible countering options. The terrorist attack on 9.11 also facilitated the ongoing process of the United States military transformation. The military transformation is not only to change the U.S. force structure but also military doctrines, training & education systems, weapon-systems, equipment, operational concepts etc. Through this process the U.S. military troops will transform in to a more high-tech, versatile, compact, modular, and flexible force. Also the U.S. military bases stationed through out the world are to be reorganized on the basis of the Global Defense Posture Review. The major purpose of this review is to secure strategic flexibility which enables the U.S. forces to rapidly approach and intervene in regional crisis through establishing a network of small bases. These are the direct factors which demands changes in the traditional role of the United States forces stationed in Korea. As for an indirect factor, it is likely to point out the growing anti-american sentiment in South Korea. Throughout the Cold War, Koreans scarcely doubted the fact that the U.S. forces in Korea is the primary power that can deter war from a communist attack and the Korean people appreciated their existence. However, as the younger generation, who didn't experience the Korean War but did experience industrialization and democratization in the republic, became the mainstream of the Korean society, issues such as unilateral policy of the United States, inequality of the U.S & R.O.K. alliance became a matter of concern. Through 1990s, the their had been numerous accidents during military training that caused damage to civilians, environmental pollutions and crimes committed by U.S troops and soldiers in Korea. And each of these incidents stimulated the cultivation of the anti-american sentiment. The korean people began to demand a more equal relation with the United States. On the other hand, the anti-american demonstrations, broadcasted by the mass-media, triggered an anti-korean sentiment in the United States and spread doubts about stationing american soldiers in Korea. This factor also may have influenced the United States USFK stationing policy in an indirect manner. Currently, it has come to an agreement by the two countries, Korea and the United States, that they will relocate the Yong-san military base and the U.S. 2nd infantry division to rear area, integrate U.S. military bases, enhance R.O.K & U.S. combined military capability, and turnover 10 military missions from USFK to korean military forces. This enables the USFK to transform into a future type force, which is more flexible, versatile, agile and modular. In near future, it is expected that most of the essential responsibilities of defending Korea from north korean conventional invasion will be given to the korean military forces. As for the future prospect of the USFK, its role will not remain just to deter war against north korean attack, but expand its capabilities to become a regional security means with strategic flexibility. Therefor I would like to conclude this thesis by proposing ways to meet and prepare for the USFK role shift as follows: First, the korean government has to focus its efforts on alleviating concerns about U.S. forces leaving the peninsula, or in the opposite, commencing preemptive air strikes at north korean nuclear facilities that can lead to a major war. Any irrational or emotional approaches to this matter by the people will only make matters worse. Second, reciprocal measures must be made in order to improve horizontal R.O.K-U.S relations enhancing mutual benefits. The USFK policies within the peninsula ought to be thoroughly discussed and coordinated beforehand by military authorities of the two country. Third, if the military role of the USFK is to extend beyond the Korean peninsula, it may influence regional security issues. It may also possibly cause an armament race by the countries within the region. Therefore it is necessary to establish a regional multi-lateral security regime and it is perhaps the right time to start a joint study to do this, participated by the countries in this region. Fourth, in the future the korean military forces will take most of the essential responsibilities to defend Korea from a north korean conventional attack. Thus, it is urgent to modernize and intensify joint military capabilities in order to develop a self reliant defense system.

A Study on the correlations between South Korea and U.S. aid to North Korea and North Korean provocation : the case of military provocation, nuclear test and missile launch between 1998 and 2012

장부윤 서울대학교 국제대학원 2014 국내석사

This thesis explores and seeks to find correlations between South Korean and the United States’ aid to North Korea and North Korean threats focusing on military provocations towards South Korea and missile and nuclear tests from 1998 to 2012 since North Korean military provocations, missile launches and nuclear tests have been continued despite the South Korean government and the United States government’s pursuit of either engagement policy or containment policy. It attempts to find instances where the aid from South Korea and the United States positively and successfully induced behavior change in North Korea by applying the framework settled in accordance to the definition and purpose of the aid, which is based on the idea that a receiving country would change its behavior if a sending country provides aid. In order to find correlations between South Korean and the United States’ aid to North Korea and North Korean provocation, this paper lists each provocation that occurred between 1998 and 2012 and analyzes both aid volume and the fluctuation of the aid from the previous year towards North Korea from South Korea and the United States as well as North Korea’s response on the aid provided by South Korea and the United States. Both North Korean military provocations and nuclear and missile tests between 1998 and 2012 occurred regardless of the aid transferred by South Korea and the United States, thus, South Korean aid and the United States aid towards North Korea does not affect lead to behavior change in North Korea based on the given framework. However, this research also shows that North Korean military provocation or nuclear and missile tests were more likely to occur when South Korea and the United States reduced their aid volume compared to that of the previous year, suspended aid, and when the aid volume was below the average. Indeed, this study concludes that military provocation is more correlated to the South Korean aid than the United States aid, and nuclear tests and missile launches are more correlated to the United States aid than South Korean aid. Nonetheless, the reduction of aid volume is due to the treacherous behavior of North Korea despite the assistance of South Korea and the United States when looking at the issues thoroughly, and North Korea is focused more on the United States aid than the South Korean aid.

Scholastic Accomplishments of Syngman Rhee in the United States-With Special Reference to His Doctoral Dissertation, Neutrality as Influenced by the United States

Park, James(Jimmy) Y Graduate School of International Studies, Yonsei U 1999 국내박사

Syngman Rhee (Yi Su˘ng-man, 1875-1965) is often described as a dictator who abused his power at great lengths. As a result of his unpopular political actions, which in 1960 led to a disastrous outcome, the general sentiment of the Korean people remains more critical than favorable. Such is the unfortunate fate of the first president of the Republic of Korea. Although Rhee has been much maligned throughout the years, however, it is difficult to refute the sacrifices he has made to his country. During his lifetime, Rhee devoted his efforts to fighting Japanese colonialism and to bringing forth an independent "democratic" society. Therefore, in the conventional literature dealing with Rhee, the political aspects of his life have received the most, if not all the attention. However, Rhee was much more than a one-dimensional politician. He had accomplished so much away from politics. Thus, there are other facets of his life that deserve more recognition and better scrutiny than what they currently receive. As such, it is somewhat unfair to judge and criticize Rhee solely on his political efforts and not to study other significant aspects of this unique individual. Among his many lifetime achievements, it is important not to overlook his accomplishments as a scholar. From early childhood, Rhee had always excelled academically. This scholastic excellence is reflected by his work in some of the leading academic institutions in the United States. Rliee earned his Bachelor of Ai-ts degree from George Washington University and subsequently furthered his education by attending Harvard University where he received his Master of Arts degree. Then, Rhee completed his education by receiving his Doctor of Philosophy degree from Princeton University. However, even more impressive was that Rhee completed the previously mentioned education within only five years. In addition to his educational achievements, Rhee also had success in other aspects of scholarship. Rhee was very active in both print media and academic literature. Rhee wrote for and was actively involved in the publication of Korean newspapers such as Maeil sinmun (Daily News). Furthermore, Rhee wrote numerous books both in Korean and in English. One of his better known books is the English-language work, entitled Japan Inside Out (1941). Although Rhee achieved much in academia, many are either unaware of such accomplishments and abilities, or they do not take such factors into consideration. There are a myriad of critics including Bruce Cumings who criticized Rhee by stating that "The CIA was right to say that Rhee's intellect was shallow; his publications and private communications, at least the ones available, betray few hints of a contemplative mind...." Hence, the focus of this thesis is to explore the educational background and achievements of Rhee with an examination of his published doctoral dissertation, entitled Neutrality as Influenced by the United States. The initial chapter of this thesis will delve into his academic history, both in Korea and the United States. Rhee was a very capable individual and a dedicated student who achieved a great deal in academia. He initially began his education with extensive training in the Confucian classics. However, with the opening of Korea to foreign missionaries and the proliferation of Western learning, Rhee abandoned his Confucian classical education and studied English and Christianity. Even while spending over five and a half years in prison due to his nationalist activities, he dedicated himself to his education. With limited resources, which included English-language newspapers and magazines, Rhee was able to improve his English skills while continuing to learn about tlie Western states. Then, upon his release from prison, Rhee arrived in the United States and studied at three of the top academic institutions in the country. Ultimately, with his Ph.D. from Princeton University, he distinguished himself as being the first Korean ever to receive a Ph.D. in tlie United States. In the process of earning his Ph.D., Rhee focused his studies on international law and history and wrote his doctoral dissertation entitled Neutrality as Influenced by the United States, which was published by Princeton University Press in 1912. This is the focus of the subsequent chapters. In this book, he wrote on the concepts of neutrality and its effects as developed by the United States. Delving into the history and its origins, Rhee explains that tlie United States and its liberal policies greatly influenced the evolution of neutrality and maritime law. Therefore, as Neutrality as Injltienced by the United States represents and reflects a high level of scholarship, this thesis will attempt to shed more light on this academic work and, ultimately, the intellectual abilities of Rhee. This study concludes with a brief evaluation and analysis. This section will examine tlie strengths and weaknesses of tlie book. In addition, questions pertaining to the possible effect that the book had in the academia as well as the possible role Woodrow Wilson played i n regards to this work will be examined. Among the references used during this study, the biography entitled Syngman Rhee: The Man Behind the Myth by Robert T. Oliver is the best English- language source available. Oliver recounts Rhee's life until the end of the Korean War with great detail and care. Unfortunately, as a- long time friend and confidant of Rhee, Oliver may have been too subjective in his work. In addition, another valuable source I have been able to use is the unpublished autobiographical notes Rhee wrote that are currently being edited by Professor Chong-sik Lee for the Institute for Modern Korean Studies at Yonsei University. These autobiographical notes were used by Oliver in writing his aforementioned book. These notes, which iiiclude other pertinent information, give validity to confirm or refute much of the information currently available. As for Korean-language material, the work entitled Yi Sting-man u˘i sarm kwa kkum: Tnet 'ong-nyo˘ng i toegi kkaji (The Life and Dreams of Syngman Rhee: Prior to His Assumption of Presidency) by Professor Young Ick Lew is an excellent source that offers much more current and updated information regarding Rhee. Although these three sources offer favorable views on Rhee, they still provide a wealth of information and tremendous anecdotes to help us better understand Rhee the scholar, and more importantly, the man.

Social Acceptance of Transgender People in South Korea and the United States: A Cultural Comparative Analysis

서수연 숙명여자대학교 국제관계대학원 2021 국내석사

According to pre-existing studies that show public opinion of transgender rights in South Korea and the United States, the level of social acceptance on transgender people in the two countries are found to greatly vary, that of the U.S. being higher than in South Korea. (Horim YiWinston, 2019) (Winston LuhurTaylor, 2019) Additionally, contrasting degree of social acceptance of transgender people in the two countries, especially in military and same sex universities as revealed in cases of recent years, inspired the author to examine what featural differences led to contrasting social acceptance on transgender people in South Korea and the United States. Among numerous potential features that may have led to current distinct level of social embracement of transgender people in the two countries, this study pays attention to the cultural differences of the two social entities and examines them by Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory. Through the comparative analysis, differences in five cultural dimensions out of total six dimensions were found have been related to current contrasting attitudes toward transgender people in South Korea and the United States.

Epidemics, Public Health, and the State: A Comparative Study of Britain and the United States

McCoy, Charles Allan, Jr University of Virginia 2013 해외박사(DDOD)

In this research I compare how the governments of Britain and the United States responded to outbreaks of disease in the 19th and early 20th century and how their distinct responses shaped the development of their public health systems. I then use this historical research to understand their contemporary disease control styles. I examine three questions. First, I explore why, even though Britain and the United States both experienced devastating epidemics throughout the 19th century, Britain began to form a comprehensive public health response to these outbreaks in the first part of the century, but the United States did not take such actions until near the end of the century. Using the concept of an epidemic response public health formation cycle, I explain this difference by (1) the degree of state centralization, (2) the availability to the state of a coherent medical theory of disease, and (3) the degree to which the state imagined its populace as a "social body.". Second, I examine why the British and American state developed distinct systems of public health. Britain developed a sanitary approach to disease control and saw epidemics as part of larger social problems, like poverty and overcrowding. In contrast, the United States emphasized the use of quarantine and saw the response to epidemics more simply as a medical-technical problem. I argue that these different epidemic styles are primarily shaped by (1) when each state started to form its public health system and the medical theory of disease that was available to Britain (the miasmatic theory of disease) and the United States (the germ theory of disease) at that time, (2) the organizational location of each state's public health system, and (3) who each country focused their disease control efforts on. Finally, I use this historical research to understand the response of Britain and the United States to AIDS in the 20th century and their responses to the current 21st century disease threats of SARS and influenza A H5N1 (avian flu) and A H1N1 (swine flu). I argue that Britain and America's different state responses to these diseases are based in their unique historical experience with epidemics.

디지털 정보에 대한 강제처분에서의 정보 프라이버시권 보장 방안 : 미국과의 비교를 중심으로

전치홍 연세대학교 법학전문대학원 2021 국내박사

Computers and the Internet developed in the 20th century have positively changed the lives of citizens. Citizens can easily do various things using digital computers and can communicate with the world conveniently through the Internet. However, such development of digital technology poses a serious problem to the privacy of citizens. Because most daily life of citizens is stored as a large amount of digital information, leakage of digital information by the state or corporation leads to serious violation of citizen’s right to privacy. Therefore, to respond to such infringement of the right to privacy, the concept of information privacy was created in the United States, and the concept of the right to informational self - determination was created in Korea. Information privacy is highly likely to be violated in the course of compulsory investigations by investigative agencies. In response to the violation of information privacy in the process of compulsory criminal investigation, the National Assembly, Constitutional Court, and Supreme Court of South Korea have responded in various ways. However, the Korean legal system related to the compulsory investigation of digital information still does not sufficiently guarantee citizens’ information privacy. Based on this awareness of the problem, this thesis aims to find a way to guarantee information privacy in the process of compulsory investigation of digital information. In addition, as a methodology, this thesis used a method of accurately comparing the relevant laws and judgments of South Korea with the case of the United States. This thesis consists of 8 chapters. The main contents of each chapter are as follows. Chapter 1 explains the subject and purpose of this thesis. In addition, it examines various concepts related to digital information and discusses the warrant system in South Korea and the United States. Chapter 2 reviews the history of the establishment of information privacy in South Korea and the United States. In the United States, the concept of information privacy was created, and in South Korea, a fundamental right called the right to informational self - determination was created. South Korea's right to informational self - determination is a concept corresponding to information privacy in the United States. Since such information privacy can be violated in the course of a criminal compulsory investigation, the National Assembly and Supreme Court of South Korea have made efforts to ensure information privacy. The United States has also similarly guaranteed information privacy. This paper classified them into five types. Chapter 3 examines the trends of the two countries concerning the expansion of the application of warrants and the strengthening of protection of communication secrets. The U.S. Supreme Court has continued to broaden the scope of the Fourth Amendment protection to protect the right to information privacy, which is particularly closely related to the protection of communication information. Similar to the United States, South Korea has strengthened the protection of communications information. In this regard, after closely comparing the judgments(decisions) of the US court and the Constitutional Court of South Korea, I present proposals for improvement of the Communications Secret Protection Act and the Telecommunications Business Act of South Korea. Chapter 4 examines the trends in both countries that strictly demand the conditions for the investigation agency to obtain a warrant. The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution requires particularity requirements for issuing warrants, and the US courts strictly require such particularity requirements to prevent search and seizure warrants for digital information from becoming general warrants. South Korea's National Assembly amended the Criminal Procedure Act to require that search and seizure warrants be issued only for information related to the alleged facts. The above guarantees the right to information privacy at the stage of issuing a warrant. Here, I propose amendments to the Criminal Procedure Act of South Korea that state that a warrant for search and seizure of information should be issued with the type of information subject to seizure in detail. Chapter 5 discusses trends in both countries to strengthen procedural controls in the process of warrant enforcement. In the United States, magistrate judges regulate the search and seizure of digital information by imposing ex-ante restrictions on warrants. The Supreme Court of South Korea has issued judgments that ensure that warrants for digital information are executed only on information related to the alleged facts, and the National Assembly of South Korea passed an amendment to the Criminal Procedure Act, which is similar to the intention of the above Supreme Court decisions. The decisions of the Supreme Court and the revision of the Criminal Procedure Act reviewed above were made to prevent investigative agencies from searching for information unrelated to the alleged facts during the execution of a warrant. In addition, when issuing a warrant for digital information, Korean courts restrict the subject and method of search and seizure in advance. In particular, the Supreme Court of South Korea ruled that the search is still ongoing until the process of selecting relevant information is over. If the search is ongoing, the investigative agency must comply with various obligations under the Criminal Procedure Act, so the right to information privacy is protected for a longer time. The Supreme Court of South Korea has also strengthened the rights of data subjects to participate in the search and seizure process. Here, I argue that when a court issues a search and seizure warrant for digital information, the court should limit the method of execution of the warrant in advance. And I propose an amendment to the Criminal Procedure Act of South Korea containing such claims. And I review plans to effectively guarantee the right of data subjects to participate in the search and seizure procedures. In addition, I argue that information irrelevant to the facts of the charge should be destroyed without delay after the seizure procedure is completed, and I propose an amendment to the Korean Criminal Procedure Act in this regard. Chapter 6 examines the trends in both countries related to restrictions on the acquisition of information unrelated to the alleged facts accidentally discovered during the execution of a warrant. In the United States, Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution requires the investigative agency to obtain a search warrant prior to conducting a search or seizure. However, there are several exceptions to the warrant requirement. The search incident to a lawful arrest, the Plain view doctrine, and the border search exception are among these exceptions. However, recently in the United States, some courts have issued judgments that exclude or limit such exceptions to the warrant requirement. If an investigative agency confiscated electronic evidence that is not related to the charges stated in the warrant, during the execution of the warrant, the Supreme Court of South Korea denied the admissibility of the evidence in the course of criminal proceedings. In addition, South Korean investigative agencies may search and seize information storage media voluntarily submitted by the seized person without a warrant. However, recently, some courts in South Korea have issued rulings limiting such unwarranted search and seizure. Here, I argue that the judgment criteria of the Supreme Court of South Korea to determine whether an investigative agency seized digital information related to the alleged facts in the warrant should be further specified. In addition, I present the criteria for judging whether to issue a warrant for digital information unrelated to the alleged facts discovered accidentally during the execution of the warrant. I also argue that the provisions of South Korea's Criminal Procedure Act that allow search and seizure without a warrant should be revised. Chapter 7 reviews the court rulings in both countries denying the admissibility of digital information seized by investigative agencies. The courts of both countries gave investigative agencies that had completed the seizure procedure an obligation to delete information irrelevant to the alleged facts in the warrant. I argue here that illegally collected digital information should be strictly excluded from the trial. I also propose that the court should immediately decide whether to use the confiscated digital information after the investigation agency's seizure procedure is over. Chapter 8 summarizes the entire discussion of this paper. 20세기에 개발된 컴퓨터와 인터넷은 시민들의 생활에 긍정적인 변화를 가져왔다. 시민들은 디지털 컴퓨터를 이용하여 여러 가지 작업들을 손쉽게 해낼 수 있게 되었으며, 인터넷을 통하여 세상과 편리하게 소통할 수 있게 되었다. 하지만 이와 같은 디지털 기술의 발전은 시민의 사생활의 비밀과 자유에 심각한 문제를 가져왔다. 시민의 대부분의 일상이 대량의 디지털 정보로 저장되기 때문에, 국가 또는 기업에 의한 디지털 정보의 유출은 시민의 프라이버시권에 대한 중대한 침해로 이어지기 때문이다. 따라서 이러한 프라이버시권 침해에 대응하기 위하여 미국에서는 정보 프라이버시권이라는 개념이 생성되었고, 대한민국에서는 개인정보자기결정권이라는 개념이 생겨났다. 한편, 이러한 정보 프라이버시권은 정부 또는 민간 기업의 개인정보 수집 및 이용 등에 의하여 발생할 수도 있고, 또는 국가 수사기관의 강제수사 과정에서도 침해될 수 있다. 그런데, 수사기관의 강제처분에 의한 정보 프라이버시권 침해는 그 침해의 정도가 특히 높다. 수사기관은 대량의 디지털 정보에서 최초 수사의 목적과 관련 없는 별건 수사의 혐의까지 대량으로 탐색할 수 있기에, 이는 국가 형벌권의 남용으로 이어질 수가 있는 것이다. 이러한 ‘형사상 강제처분에서의 정보 프라이버시권(개인정보자기결정권) 침해 상황’을 맞이하여 대한민국의 국회와 헌법재판소, 대법원은 여러 가지 측면에서 이에 대응해왔다. 그러나 디지털 정보에 대한 강제처분과 관련한 대한민국의 법제는 아직까지도 정보 주체의 정보 프라이버시권(개인정보자기결정권)을 충분히 보장하지 못하고 있는 것으로 보인다. 본 논문은 이와 같은 문제 의식에서 출발하여, 디지털 정보에 대한 강제처분에서의 정보 프라이버시권을 보장하는 방안’을 찾고자 하였다. 또한 본 논문은 그 방법으로서 대한민국의 관련 법제와 판결 등을 미국의 사례와 정밀하게 비교하는 방식을 사용하였다. 이와 같은 문제의식에서 본 논문은 제1장의 서론 및 제8장의 결론을 포함한 총 8장으로 구성되었다. 각 장의 핵심 내용은 다음과 같다. 제1장 제1절에서는 연구의 주제와 목적을 밝혔고, 제2절에서는 연구의 방법과 내용을 정리하였다. 또한 제3절에서는 국내의 선행 연구를 분석한 후 본 논문의 독창성을 밝혔다. 제4절에서는 디지털 정보와 관련한 기존의 용어들을 검토한 후, 본 논문에서 디지털 정보라는 용어를 선택한 이유를 제시하였다. 마지막으로 제5절에서는 강제처분의 개념을 검토한 후 대한민국과 미국 간의 영장주의의 차이점도 논의하였다. 제2장에서는 정보 프라이버시권의 역사 및 의의를 논하였는데, 구체적인 내용은 다음과 같다. 제1절에서는 미국에서의 정보 프라이버시권 개념의 생성사에 대하여 다루었다. 미국에서는 프라이버시의 개념에서부터 정보 프라이버시권이 생성되었고, 미국의 연방대법원은 정보 프라이버시권이 문제가 된 사건을 다룬 바 있다. 다만 미국의 연방대법원은 위 사건들에서 정보 프라이버시권의 침해를 인정하지 않았고, 정보 프라이버시권의 인정 근거와 한계 등도 명확히 밝히지 않았다는 한계가 있다. 제2절에서는 대한민국에서의 개인정보자기결정권 개념의 생성 역사에 대하여 살펴보았다. 대한민국의 개인정보자기결정권은 미국의 정보 프라이버시권에 상응하는 개념으로서, 대한민국의 헌법재판소는 개인정보자기결정권을 헌법상 새로운 독자적 기본권으로 승인하였다. 제3절에서는 본 논문이 정보 프라이버시권이라는 용어를 사용하는 이유에 대하여 밝혔다. 또한 ‘디지털 정보에 대한 강제처분에서의 정보 프라이버시권 보장 동향’과 관련하여 양국이 유사한 동향을 보이고 있음을 확인하였고, 이를 ‘① 영장주의 적용 대상의 확대 및 통신비밀 보호의 강화, ② 영장 발부 요건의 엄격화, ③ 영장 집행 과정에서의 절차적 통제 강화, ④ 강제처분 과정에서 우연히 발견된 별건 정보의 취득 제한, ⑤ 압수처분에 대한 사후 위법성 판단의 엄격화’라는 5가지 유형으로 쟁점화하였다. 제3장에서는 영장주의 적용 대상의 확대 및 통신비밀 보호의 강화와 관련한 양국의 동향을 논의하였는데, 구체적인 내용은 다음과 같다. 제1절은 개관으로서, 정보 프라이버시권 보장과 관련한 미국의 수정헌법 제4조의 법리를 간략히 논의한 후, 이를 바탕으로 정보 프라이버시권 보호를 위하여 미국 연방대법원이 수정헌법 제4조(영장주의)의 보호 대상을 계속 넓혀온 동향을 검토하였다. 또한 대한민국의 국회와 헌법재판소는 영장주의 적용 대상을 확대하여 왔는데, 이는 수정헌법 제4조 보호 대상의 확대와 관련한 미국의 논의와 유사함을 밝혔다. 제2절에서는 수정헌법 제4조의 보호 대상을 확대한 미국 연방대법원의 판결인 United States v. Jones 판결, Carpenter v. U.S. 판결을 상세히 분석한 후, Jones 판결과 Carpenter 판결의 의의를 위치정보 이용 수사와 관련하여 살펴보았다. 제3절에서는 수정헌법 제4조의 보호 대상과 밀접한 관계에 있는 통신비밀을 미국 법원 및 의회가 어떻게 보장하여 왔는지를 분석하였다. 제4절에서는 영장주의 적용 대상 확대와 관련한 대한민국에서의 논의 중 하나인 GPS 위치정보 이용 수사에 대해서 검토하였다. 제5절에서는 대한민국에서의 통신비밀 보호 동향과 관련하여, 통신비밀보호법에 대한 헌법재판소의 헌법불합치결정례와 국회의 개선 입법들을 구체적으로 분석하였다. 제6절에서는 영장주의 보호 대상의 확대 및 통신비밀 보호의 강화와 관련한 양국의 동향을 비교 검토하였다. 제7절에서는 대한민국 통신비밀보호법과 전기통신사업법의 개선방안을 제시하였다. 제4장에서는 영장 발부 요건의 엄격화와 관련한 양국의 동향을 분석하였는데, 구체적인 내용은 다음과 같다. 제1절에서는 디지털 정보에 대한 영장 발부시에 특정성 요건을 엄격히 요하는 미국 법원의 동향을 검토하였다. 미국에서는 정보 저장매체 압수·수색 영장에서의 특정성 요건이 영장의 포괄 영장화를 막는 역할을 하고 있다. 그러나 이는 다음과 같은 점에서 한계도 보인다. 먼저,‘디지털 증거는 파일명 등이 변경되어 숨겨져 있을 수 있다’라는 점에서 법원은 영장의 특정성 요건 충족을 관대하게 인정하기도 한다. 다음으로, 특정성 원칙의 위배가 인정된 경우에도 선의의 예외 이론(good faith exception)에 따라서 수집된 디지털 정보의 증거능력이 인정되기도 한다. 제2절에서는 영장 발부와 관련한 대한민국의 특정성 요건과 관련성 요건을 검토하였다. 대한민국의 형사소송법은 미국처럼 특정성 요건을 명시적으로 규정하고 있지는 않지만, 영장의 방식을 규정한 형사소송법 제114조 제1항은 일반영장을 금지한 것으로 해석된다. 특히 2011년도의 형사소송법 개정으로 신설된 114조 제1항 단서는 ‘압수ㆍ수색할 물건이 전기통신에 관한 것인 경우’에는 특정성의 원칙을 더욱 강조하고 있다. 또한, 국회는 2011년도에 형사소송법을 개정하여 압수․수색의 요건에 관련성 요건을 추가하였다. 이와 같은 대한민국의 특정성 요건과 관련성 요건은 디지털 정보에 대한 무분별한 영장 발부를 통제하는 역할을 한다. 제3절에서는 이상과 같은 양국 동향의 비교를 바탕으로 하여, ‘정보에 대한 압수·수색 영장은 압수 대상 정보의 유형이 특정되어 발부되어야 한다’라는 취지를 담은 대한민국 형사소송법 개정안을 제시하였다. 제5장에서는 영장 집행 과정에서의 절차적 통제 강화와 관련한 양국의 동향을 분석하였는데, 구체적인 내용은 다음과 같다. 제1절에서는 영장 집행 과정에서의 절차적 통제 강화와 관련한 미국의 동향을 논의하였다. 최근 미국의 영장 발부 법원들은 영장의 집행 방식을 사전에 제한하는 동향을 보이고 있다. 이는 영장 집행 과정에서의 무관 정보 탐색 및 취득을 방지하는 기능을 한다. 이러한 사전 제한을 본 논문에서는 ‘① 정보 저장매체의 반출 제한, ② 영장 집행 기간의 제한, ③ 유관정보 탐색 방법의 제한, ④ 정보 저장매체 압수 이후 법원의 추가 허가 요구, ⑤무관 정보 폐기(삭제) 의무의 부여’의 5가지로 유형화하였다. 제2절에서는 영장 집행 과정에서의 절차적 통제 강화와 관련한 대한민국의 동향을 논의하였다. 대한민국은 대법원 결정과 형사소송법 규정을 중심으로 하여 영장 집행을 통제하고 있는데, 이는 구체적으로 ‘정보 저장매체에 대한 압수·수색 영장 집행 방식의 제한, 압수·수색 종료 시점의 확대(압수·수색 통제의 시간적 범위의 확대), 참여권 강화’로 쟁점화할 수 있다. 제3절에서는 대한민국에서의 영장 집행 절차 개선 방안을 제시하였다. 우선, 영장 집행에 대한 적극적인 사전 제한이 이루어져야 하므로, 본 절에서는 이와 관련하여 ‘디지털 정보에 대한 압수․수색 영장 발부시에는 법원이 구체적인 영장 집행 방안을 기재하여 영장을 발부하여야 한다’라는 취지의 형사소송법 개정방안을 제안하였다. 또한 본 절에서는 실질적인 참여권을 보장하기 위한 방안도 살펴보았다. 마지막으로 본절에서는 압수·수색 절차의 종료 시점이 갖는 중요성을 검토한 후, ‘압수·수색 절차의 종료 이후에는 압수·수색 절차의 종료 시점이 기록되고 무관 정보는 지체없이 폐기되어야 한다’라는 취지를 담은 대한민국 형사소송법 개정안을 제시하였다. 제6장에서는 강제처분 과정에서 우연히 발견된 별건 정보의 취득을 제한하는 양국의 동향을 논의하였는데, 구체적인 내용은 다음과 같다. 제1절에서는 영장주의 예외 적용 범위를 축소하는 미국 법원의 동향(영장주의의 엄격 적용)을 상세히 검토하였다. 미국에서는 영장주의의 예외를 인정하는 이론이 발전해 왔는데, 대표적으로 ‘체포에 수반한 수색 이론, 플레인 뷰 이론, 국경 수색 예외 이론’ 등이 있다. 그런데 미국의 법원들은 위와 같은 영장주의 예외 이론의 적용을 디지털 정보에 대해서는 배제하거나 축소하는 동향을 보이고 있다. 제2절에서는 강제처분 과정에서 우연히 발견된 별건 정보의 취득을 제한하는 대한민국의 법원 판결들을 상세히 검토하였다. 대한민국의 대법원은 수사기관이 관련성이 인정되지 않는 정보를 압수한 경우, 이에 대한 증거능력을 부정하여왔다. 이와 관련하여 대법원은 수사기관이 관련성 없는 별건 정보를 우연히 발견한 경우에, 해당 별건 증거를 취득하기 위하여 수사기관이 준수하여야 하는 절차도 제시한 바 있다. 또한 대한민국의 일부 하급심 법원에서는 정보 저장매체에 대한 영장 없는 압수·수색(임의제출 제도 등)을 제한하는 판결을 선고하고 있는데, 이와 관련한 대표적인 사례로서는 ‘현행범 체포현장에서의 임의제출 형식의 압수를 제한한 판결’과 ‘긴급체포 현장에서의 임의제출 형식의 압수를 제한한 판결’이 있다. 제3절에서는 이상과 같은 양국 동향의 비교를 바탕으로 하여 관련성 판단 기준의 구체화 방안을 검토하였고, ‘우연히 발견한 무관정보에 대한 영장 발부 기준을 구체화하는 취지’의 형사소송법 개정안을 제안하였다. 또한 ‘긴급 압수·수색 등의 상황에서 수사기관은 원칙적으로 정보 저장매체 자체에 대한 압수만이 가능하다’라는 취지의 형사소송법 개정안을 제시하였다. 이외에도 임의제출 제도(형사소송법 제218조)를 이용한 정보 저장매체 압수를 엄격히 제한할 필요가 있음을 밝히고, 이와 관련한 학계의 개선 논의들을 검토하였다. 제7장에서는 ‘압수처분에 대한 사후 위법성 판단의 엄격화’와 관련된 양국의 동향을 살펴보았는데, 구체적인 내용은 다음과 같다. 제1절은 문제의 소재를 밝히는 절로서, 본 절에서는 ‘집행이 완료된 압수 처분에 대한 사후 위법성 판단을 엄격히 하고 있는 양국의 법원 판결(U.S. v. Ganias 판결 및 대법원 2015. 7. 16.자 2011모1839 전원합의체 결정) 모두가 무관 정보 삭제 의무의 쟁점을 담고 있다’라는 점을 지적하고, 양 판결을 비교할 필요성을 밝혔다. 이와 같은 양국의 판결(결정)들은 ‘정보 저장매체에 대한 강제처분(압수·수색)에서는 수사기관이 대량의 무관정보를 손쉽게 취득할 수 있다’라는 문제의식을 바탕으로 하고 있는 것으로 보인다. 제2절에서는 미국의 U.S. v. Ganias 판결의 내용과 이후의 소송 경과, 그리고 판결의 의미를 상세히 분석하였다. 제3절에서는 대한민국 대법원의 2015. 7. 16.자 2011모1839 전원합의체 결정(종근당 사건)을 상세히 분석한 후, 이를 바탕으로 대한민국 대법원의 2015. 7. 16.자 2011모1839 전원합의체 결정(종근당 사건)을 미국의 U.S. v. Ganias 판결과 비교 분석하였다. 제4절에서는 압수·수색 절차 종료 이후의 사후 통제를 개선하는 방안에 대하여 다음과 같이 논의하였다. 먼저, 본 절에서는 ‘압수된 디지털 정보에 대해서는 위법수집증거배제법칙을 보다 엄격히 적용할 필요가 있다’라는 점을 지적하였다. 그리고 이와 관련하여 ‘위법하게 수집된 증거에 대하여 일정한 경우에는 증거능력을 인정하는 위법수집증거배제법칙의 예외 법리가 디지털 정보와 관련하여서는 보다 신중하게 인정될 필요가 있다’라는 점을 밝혔다. 다음으로, 본 절에서는 ‘압수·수색 절차가 종료된 이후에는 법원에 의한 적극적인 사후 통제가 이루어질 필요가 있다’라는 점을 지적하였다. 그리고 이를 위하여 ‘인터넷 회선의 전기통신을 대상으로 한 통신제한조치(인터넷 감청)에 대하여 법원의 사후 승인을 받도록 한 대한민국 통신비밀보호법 제12조의2의 취지’를 참고할 수 있음을 밝혔다. 제8장은 결론으로서 앞선 논의 내용을 종합하고 정리하였다.

대북 경수로 지원사업은 왜 실패했는가? -고비용 신호 분석을 중심으로-

김영준 경남대학교 북한대학원대학교 2024 국내석사

This study began with the question, “Why did KEDO’s light-water reactor supply project to North Korea fail?” and aimed to find the reasons for the failure through the analysis of costly signals and literature review. The purpose of this study is to infer the political interests and implications of both the United States and North Korea surrounding the failure of the light-water reactor project by distinguishing between signals sent by the United States to North Korea regarding the commitment problem under the Geneva Agreed Framework. Distinguishing through ‘costly signals’, the United States sent signal providing heavy oil to resolve the first North Korean nuclear crisis, and North Korea responded by promising to remain in the NPT system and freeze its nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, when the second North Korean nuclear crisis emerged, the United States immediately implemented the cessation of heavy oil supply, and in response, North Korea declared the release of the nuclear freeze and its withdrawal from the NPT. The provision of heavy oil was a ‘costly signal’ that resulted in ‘sunk cost’ for the United States. However, the provision of light-water reactors was not a costly signal for the United States. The United States did not bear the cost of the light-water reactor project and the initial construction schedule was not followed. Additionally, North Korea showed no willingness to accept IAEA nuclear inspections, which were required before the core components of the light-water reactors were delivered. Consequently, the light-water reactor project was halted, concluded, and liquidated. In addition, through literature research, we analyzed weaknesses and contradictions in documents signed between the United States and North Korea and between KEDO and North Korea. Based on this, we analyzed the impact of the ‘costly signals’ on the Geneva Agreed Framework and the light-water reactor project. The Geneva Agreed Framework was a political agreement that was not legally binding under international law, and a political agreement was a form that could be easily destroyed the moment trust in the implementation of promises was broken. Additionally, the goals of the United States and North Korea for the Geneva Agreed Framework were different. The United States attempted to maintain the NPT regime by freezing North Korea's current nuclear program, and North Korea sought to take advantage of the economic benefits of energy support while receiving regime guarantees from the United States. And the light-water reactor project did not have a binding force that could force the United States and North Korea to fulfill their commitments due to issues with the role and limitations of the international organization called KEDO. In conclusion, the heavy oil supply signal from the United States was considered costly signal, resulting in a high level of trust from North Korea regarding commitment problem. Therefore, North Korea adhered to the nuclear facility freeze commitment for eight years or its equivalent. However, the light-water reactor supply signal from the United States was not costly signal, leading to low trust from North Korea, and no follow-up measures were taken to receive the light-water reactors. When starting denuclearization negotiations or economic support discussions with North Korea in the future, we must clearly distinguish between ‘costly signals’ such as ‘tying hands’ signals and ‘sunk cost’ signals sent to each other. Rather than relying on non-binding trust, we can increase the likelihood of achieving our goals by exchanging ‘costly signals’ that force us to keep our commitments. This study is significant in that it partially supplemented the existing research that the cause of the failure of KEDO's light-water reactor project was non-compliance and collapse of the Geneva Agreed Framework through analysis of ‘costly signals’. In the future, it is expected that it will be more useful if research is conducted to analyze the conditions classified as ‘costly signals’ and the range of reliable intervals in relation to the commitment problem. 본 논문은 ‘KEDO의 대북 경수로 지원사업은 왜 실패했는가?’라는 질문에서 출발했으며, ‘고비용 신호’ 분석과 문헌연구를 통하여 그 원인을 찾고자 했다. 제네바합의에 따른 약속이행의 문제와 관련하여 미국이 북한에 보낸 신호들을 구분함으로써 경수로사업 실패를 둘러싼 미·북 양측의 정치적 이해와 함의가 무엇이었는지를 유추해내는 것이 본 논문의 연구 목적이다. ‘고비용 신호’를 구분해 보면 1차 북핵위기를 해결하기 위해 미국은 중유제공 신호를 보냈고, 북한도 NPT 체제 잔류 및 핵동결 약속으로 호응했다. 한편 2차 북핵위기가 발발하자 미국은 즉각적인 중유제공 중단 조치를 단행했고, 이에 맞서 북한 역시 핵동결 해제 및 NPT 재탈퇴 선언으로 미국이 보낸 신호에 화답했다. 중유제공은 미국의 ‘매몰비용’이 발생하는 ‘고비용 신호’였다. 그러나 경수로제공은 미국의 ‘매몰비용’이 발생하지 않는 신호였다. 미국은 경수로사업에 비용을 부담하지 않았으며, 최초 공사일정을 지키지 않았다. 북한 또한 경수로 핵심부품이 인도되기 전에 이행해야 하는 IAEA의 핵사찰을 수용할 의지가 없었으며, 그 결과 경수로사업은 중단, 종료 후 청산되고 말았다. 또한 문헌연구를 통하여 미국-북한 간, KEDO-북한 간 체결한 문서의 취약점과 모순을 분석했다. 이를 바탕으로 ‘고비용 신호’가 제네바합의와 경수로사업에 미친 영향을 분석했다. 제네바합의는 국제법상 법적 구속력이 없는 정치적 합의였으며, 정치적 합의는 약속이행에 대한 신뢰가 깨지는 순간, 쉽게 파기할 수 있는 형식이었다. 또한 제네바합의에 대한 미국과 북한의 목표가 달랐다. 미국은 북한의 현재핵 동결을 통하여 NPT 레짐을 유지하려 했고, 북한은 미국으로부터 체제보장을 받으면서 에너지 지원이라는 경제적 실익을 취하고자 했다. 그리고 경수로사업은 KEDO라는 국제기구의 역할과 한계 문제 때문에 미국과 북한의 약속이행을 강제할 수 있는 구속력을 가지지 못했다. 결론적으로 미국의 중유제공 신호는 ‘고비용 신호’였기 때문에 약속이행에 대한 북한의 신뢰도가 높았다. 그러므로 8년 동안이나 이에 상응하는 핵시설 동결 약속을 준수했다. 하지만 미국의 경수로제공 신호는 ‘고비용 신호’가 아니었기 때문에 약속이행에 대한 북한의 신뢰도는 낮았으며, 경수로를 제공받기 위한 후속조치를 진행하지 않았다. 향후 북한과 비핵화 협상 또는 경제지원 논의를 시작할 때 서로에게 보내는 ‘자기구속’ 신호와 ‘매몰비용’ 신호 등 ‘고비용 신호’를 명확히 구분해야 한다. 구속력 없는 신뢰에 의지하지 않고, 약속을 이행할 수밖에 없는 ‘고비용 신호’를 교환해야 목표 달성 가능성을 높일 수 있다. 본 논문은 KEDO의 경수로사업 실패원인이 제네바합의 불이행과 붕괴에 있다는 기존 연구를 ‘고비용 신호’ 분석 방법으로 일부 보완했다는 점에서 의의가 있다. 앞으로 약속이행의 문제와 관련하여 ‘고비용 신호’로 구분되는 조건과 신뢰할 수 있는 구간 범위를 분석하는 연구가 이뤄진다면 더 유용할 것으로 기대한다.

A Legal Perspective on Korean Worker Dispatching in Light of the United States' Joint Employer Doctrine

Kiwon Kang 고려대학교 대학원 2024 국내석사

본 연구는 미국의 공동사용자 법리의 핵심 원칙과 한국의 근로자 파견의 정책 사이의 연결점을 깊이 있게 탐구하였다. 미국의 공동사용자 법리를 중심으로 그 발전과 현재의 적용 상황을 살펴보고, 이를 바탕으로 한국의 근로자파견제도와 관련된 문제점을 분석하였다. 근로자가 근로계약관계의 당사자는 아니지만, 노무를 제공받는 자에 대하여 사용자 개념을 확대하여 책임을 물을 수 있는 방법을 미국의 공동사용자 법리를 통해 분석하였다. 이를 통해 한국의 노동시장에서 근로자의 권리 보호와 고용의 안정성을 동시에 추구하는 새로운 방향을 제시하였다. 또한 공동사용자 법리를 통해 근로파견자의 문제점을 대비시켜 분석하였을 때, 책임의 불명확성, 근로자의 기본적 권리의 부재, 그리고 분쟁 해결의 복잡성과 같은 주요 이슈들이 도출되었다. 그러나 이 문제들은 현대사회에서 근로자의 권리 보장과 고용 안정성을 중요시하는 가치와 충돌한다. 이를 개선하고 해결하기 위해서는 정부의 정책적 노력과 함께 기업들의 적극적인 참여와 내부 제도 개선이 필수적이다. 근로자 파견제도는 근로자의 일자리 창출과 기업의 경쟁력 강화라는 핵심 수단으로서, 문제점을 개선하면서 제도의 지속적인 발전은 우리 사회 전체에 긍정적인 영향을 미칠 것이다. 미국의 공동사용자 법리는 여러 기업 간의 책임을 공유하는 것을 중심으로 발전하였고, 한국의 근로자 파견제도는 파견사업주와 사용사업주의 책임 분배를 핵심으로 보고 있다. 이 두 제도는 근로자의 권리 보호와 기업의 경쟁력을 확보하는 균형을 추구하는 공통점을 가지고 있다. 이러한 공통점을 바탕으로 미국의 공동사용자 법리에서 얻을 수 있는 교훈을 활용하여 한국의 파견근로제도 개선 방안을 다음과 같이 제시하였다. 첫째, ‘미국의 공동사용자 법리와 같은 방식을 도입’을 고려해야 한다. 간접고용 근로자들의 노동권을 보호하기 위해서는 간접고용 노동자들이 사용기업에 의해 지휘 및 통제를 받거나 그들의 근로조건에 상당한 영향을 받는 현실을 인식해야 한다. 이는 사용기업에게 근로자의 근로조건과 관련된 법적 책임을 부과하고, 근로자가 자신의 근로조건에 대해 직접 논의할 수 있는 구조를 마련하는 것을 목표로 해야 한다. 둘째, 노조법상 사용자 개념을 개정이 필요하다. 한국의 최저임금법과 하도급법 등은 이러한 문제에 대한 해결책을 제공하지만, 간접고용 상황에 대한 보다 명확한 법적 규정이 필요하다. 이에 노조법상 사용자 개념을 개정하고, 근로자의 노동에 대해 지배력을 행사하는 모든 기업을 사용자로 포함시키는 방향으로 법을 개선할 필요가 있다. 이와 함께, 원청기업에 대한 연대책임을 강화하여 최저임금 준수를 보장하고, 도급계약의 투명성을 제고함으로써 근로자들이 자신의 임금이 최저임금 기준에 부합하는지 명확히 알 수 있도록 해야 한다. 이러한 조치들은 간접고용 노동자들의 권리 보호를 강화하고, 노동 시장의 공정성과 안정성을 높이는 데 기여할 수 있다. 본 연구는 미국과 한국 사이의 노동법 제도와의 상호 작용과 협력을 촉진하는 데 중요한 역할을 할 것으로 기대하며, 미국과 한국 사이의 노동법 제도의 상호 이해와 협력이 강화되는 바탕을 마련함으로써, 국제적 차원에서의 노동 문제 해결에도 기여할 것으로 확신한다. This study deeply explores the connection between the core principles of the U.S. joint employer doctrine and South Korea's worker dispatch policy. Focusing on the development and current application of the U.S. joint employer doctrine, it analyzes issues related to Korea's worker dispatch system. The study examines methods of attributing responsibility to entities receiving labor services, even though they are not parties to the employment contract, through the lens of the U.S. joint employer doctrine. This approach offers a new direction for simultaneously pursuing worker rights protection and employment stability in the Korean labor market. When analyzing the problems of dispatched workers through the joint employer doctrine, key issues such as the ambiguity of responsibility, absence of fundamental rights for workers, and the complexity of dispute resolution were identified. However, these issues conflict with values that prioritize worker rights protection and employment stability in modern society. Addressing and resolving these issues requires not only governmental policy efforts but also active participation and internal system improvements by businesses. The worker dispatch system, being a crucial tool for job creation and enhancing corporate competitiveness, will have a positive impact on our society as a whole if its problems are addressed and the system is continuously developed. Lastly, the U.S. joint employer doctrine can provide useful guidelines for complementing and improving Korea's worker dispatch system. The U.S. joint employer doctrine has developed around the concept of shared responsibility among multiple businesses, while Korea's worker dispatch system focuses on dividing responsibilities between the dispatching and user businesses. Both systems share the common goal of balancing worker rights protection with corporate competitiveness. Based on these commonalities, lessons from the U.S. joint employer doctrine can be applied to improve Korea's dispatched labor system as follows: First, it is necessary to consider 'introducing a system similar to the United States' joint employer doctrine.' To protect the labor rights of indirectly employed workers, it is essential to recognize the reality that these workers are directed and controlled by the employing company, or that their working conditions are significantly influenced by them. This involves imposing legal responsibilities on the employing company regarding workers' working conditions and creating a structure where workers can directly discuss their working conditions. Second, an amendment to the concept of 'employer' in labor union law is needed. Although Korea's Minimum Wage Law and Subcontracting Law provide solutions to these issues, more clear legal regulations for indirect employment situations are necessary. Therefore, it is essential to revise the concept of 'employer' in labor union law and consider all companies exercising control over workers' labor as employers. Along with this, strengthening the joint responsibility of principal companies to ensure compliance with the minimum wage and enhancing the transparency of subcontracting contracts are vital. This way, workers can clearly understand whether their wages meet the minimum wage standards. These measures will strengthen the protection of rights for workers in indirect employment and contribute to increasing fairness and stability in the labor market. The aforementioned policy proposals, including enhancing workers' rights, limiting the duration and repetition of dispatches, restricting and expanding dispatch in specific job categories, transparency of information and education, strengthened supervision and enforcement, and more effective dispute resolution procedures, are essential. The Korean worker dispatch system needs continuous improvement to enhance workers' rights, and leveraging the U.S. experience and suggestions can further legally strengthen Korea's worker dispatch system. This study is expected to play a significant role in promoting interaction and cooperation between labor law systems in the U.S. and Korea.

United States diplomatic and military relations with the Republic of China in the era of the Vietnam War, 1961--1969 (Taiwan)

Pellegrin, Charles John Mississippi State University 2005 해외박사(DDOD)

In the 1950s, the Republic of China (ROC) on the island of Taiwan was a Cold War ally of the United States. Led by President Chiang Kai-shek and his ruling Kuomintang Party, the ROC received military, financial, and humanitarian assistance from the U.S., and enjoyed support in the White House, from the Departments of State and Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the Democratic and Republican Parties. President Chiang even employed public relations firms and political pressure groups to help generate public support and to sway American policymakers to favor his cause. By the end of the 1970s, however, the ROC had lost its seat in the United Nations and no longer maintained formal diplomatic relations with the United States. Why would the United States abandon a long-standing World War II ally, recipient of American aid, and fellow anti-communist?. The 1960s proved to be a pivotal decade in the diplomatic and military relationship between the United States and the ROC. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, both Democrats, publicly promised support for Chiang and the Chinese Nationalists on Taiwan. Chiang hoped to secure continued military aid and diplomatic support by relying upon allies in the State Department, the Central Intelligence Agency, and in the U.S. Congress, and even occasionally making threats to take actions detrimental to American policy. Throughout the 1960s, the U.S.-ROC relationship was tested by events in the United Nations, the Taiwan Strait, and Southeast Asia. By the end of the decade, the ROC had lost millions in American aid and the United States had publicly started to consider normalizing relations with the People's Republic of China. This dissertation will show that U.S.-ROC relations in the 1960s deteriorated due to a combination of factors. The Vietnam War was one of several factors that helped bring an end to formal American relations with the Republic of China. The Vietnam War caused a conflict of interest, whereby American containment of communism in Southeast Asia clashed with ROC plans to maintain its international legitimacy and to restore its rule over all China. Additionally, bureaucratic changes within the State Department, the demise and ineffectiveness of the China Lobby, and the changing make-up of the United Nations resulting from decolonization also contributed to the decline of U.S.-ROC relations.