현대 프랑스 교육운동의 관점에서 본 페다고지 프레네

김세희 고려대학교 대학원 2014 국내박사

This study examines Freinet Pedagogy from the perspective of French education movement. Developed based on early 20th century various education movements, Freinet Pedagogy is above all a “pedagogy” that has an organic relationship with the field of practice. Later on it became an independent movement of its own educational thought and teaching methods, which played a pivotal role in contemporary French education. Whereas Célestin Freinet established his concepts of education based on practices on-site, these practices originated from various education movements from the 1920's. These education movements have formed and evolved amid the dynamics of progressive mass movements and the demands of the era, which gave rise to other forms of movement. For instance, libertarianism, formed in the late 19th century, transformed anarchism into a progressive education movement and became the matrix of early 20th century French education movement. Paul Robin and Sébastien Faure in France and Francisco Ferrer in Spain materialized the anarchist ideal of "cultivating autonomous individuals with their own standard of value judgment" into concrete practices on-site, thereby forming a libertarian idea of education and laying the foundations to propagate it in the form of a movement. On the other hand, a syndicalist education movement was formed through the syndicate as an extension of late 19th century labor movements; the New Education movement emerged, which suggested a practical possibility for the field in the current of international educational reform. The New Education movement contributed to strengthening the theoretical base of the era's education movements as well as to the development of child psychology in the early 20th century. The founder of Freinet Pedagogy, Célestin Freinet, is at the junction of all these movements. Freinet introduced the legacy of libertarian education movement like school printing, school newspapers, cooperative learning, and self-government to the class. Meanwhile, he assigned "the educational" to syndicalist education movement and "the people" to the New Education movement. He believed that education ideals should not become proclamatory arguments that could degenerate into another kind of dogma; rather, they should suggest efficient tools and techniques that could transform the field of education in reality, and their results should benefit not a chosen few but all children. Freinet's credo as such disseminated through the sharing of practical experience by means of his prolific writings and through a cooperative network that alternated between research and practice. This eventually formed the Freinet Education movement that advocated “a new education of the people” with the help of cooperative teacher groups. Open to all contemporary changes, such credo of Freinet's education movement demonstrates the “modernity” it emphasized. Freinet Pedagogy rejects becoming a theoretically and methodologically complete, closed, and petrified form. It instead is open to possibilities of the potential reform and follows the organic flow of formation, evolution, and extinction. This is the ideal principle of Freinet's education movement grounded on the conception of the human. Freinet understands human nature as a dynamic movement of life based on vitalism. The endless search, trial and error, the rule and technique of life, and the reflexion upon the power and potentials intrinsic to life all start from the universal truth of "life is," while suggesting the necessity that education should be actualized with the dynamism of life in mind. Freinet's principles of learning—“experimental search (tâtonnement expérimental)” and “natural method,” techniques that stimulates and reinforces the activity of life, and “modernity” that should be intimately connected to every moment of the present—are all education principles that focus on the dynamic movements of life. Freinet Pedagogy is defined as "pedagogy" mostly because it understands education as a dynamic relationship between life-existences or, in other words, as an "action in actions" that imparts a level of unpredictability. Mobility is a salient attribute of life-existence, which is inherent to Freinet's view on human. It is also presented as a means of disseminating Freinet Pedagogy, namely, the cooperative teacher movement. Such mobility is the main theme of this research that intends to investigate the identity of Freinet Pedagogy from the perspective of the organic relations in and out of education.

그룬트비의 평민교육사상

정해진 高麗大學校 大學院 2015 국내박사

이 연구는 18세기~19세기에 형성된 국가차원의 근대적, 계몽주의적 공교육을 비판하고, 평민의 삶 자체를 교육의 기초로 삼을 것을 주장한 덴마크 사상가 그룬트비의 평민교육사상을 소개하고, 그것이 오늘날 우리교육에 주는 시사점을 밝히는 것을 목적으로 진행되었다. 이를 위해 그룬트비 교육사상의 중심이 되는 “평민” 개념을 다각도로 조망하여 그 의미를 도출하고, “평민적 가치”와 교육의 연관성에 대한 논의를 바탕으로 평민교육사상의 원리를 다섯 가지로 도출하였다. 그룬트비의 평민교육사상 전체를 관통하고 있는 개념인 “평민”, 그리고 “평민적 가치”와 관련된 개념들은 그룬트비가 추구하는 “삶을 위한 교육”의 중심을 이룬다. 평민은 그들의 삶 속에서 인간정신의 대표적 표현인 모국어와 민족적 삶의 양식을 유지하며, 나아가 그것을 계속해서 발전시키고 있는 사람들이기 때문이다. 평민교육의 목적은 평민적 삶을 교육의 바탕으로 삼아, 한 사회를 구성하는 모든 사람들이 살아있는 상호작용을 통해 자신의 삶과 더불어 타인의 삶을 이해하도록 돕는 것이다. 이러한 내면적 이해를 바탕으로 할 때 사람들은 스스로 자유로운 가운데 공공선을 추구하고. 더 이상적인 공동체적 삶을 유지할 수 있기 때문이다. 그룬트비는 더 나은 사회는 삶을 통해 계몽된 사회구성원 개개인에 의해 이루어질 수 있다고 생각했다.

한나 아렌트 탄생성의 교육적 함의

조나영 고려대학교 대학원 2015 국내박사

We all come to this world through the ‘birth’. For humans, birth is the ontological event preceding everything and we, human beings, get a chance to start our lives in this world through the birth. And this world constantly becomes renewed due to the addition of new-born lives at every moment. Hannah Arendt pays attention to such philosophical significance of human birth in terms of the inter-relationship between human lives and the world. According to her, philosophy should more focus on studying the ontological issue of nativity, human life and the world rather than looking for the absolute reason and eternal truth inside our mind; because all individual human lives, given by nativity, endlessly interplay with other beings around them and leave their marks, no matter how small or huge, on the world which keeps going on carrying the vestiges made by those human lives even after they perish. For Arendt, all human lives consist of the two aspects ― ‘vita activa’ and ‘vita contemplativa’ ― which are closely related to ‘natality’. In her philosophical concept, ‘vita activa’ can be categorised into ‘labour’, ‘work’ and ‘action’. ‘Labour’ is essential activities for survival or sustainment, and ‘work’ is the human act to construct, utilise and manage its surroundings. Yet, ‘labour’ is only devoted to sustaining individual human life so that it is deficient of the inter-relation with the outer world of human beings. This is ‘worldlessness’ of labor. On the other hand, ‘work’ has the risk to instrumentalise everything others around an individual ― material resources, other humans and lives, and spaces ―. Therefore, Arendt at this point emphasises the importance of ‘action’ which enables us to coexist with other beings and the environment and to expose our egos. ‘vita contemplativa’, according to Arendt, comprises ‘thinking’, ‘willing’ and ‘judging’. Human lives can fall into a lethal danger ― ‘banality of evil’ ― when we do not realise the significance of our conducts. To prevent such a danger, we need ‘thinking’ which is the constant conversation with the inner self to speculate about our daily acts and the meaning of life. ‘willing’ is, on the other hand, the motivation to propel us into action which materialises the result of ‘thinking and therefore is essential in the relationship between our lives and the world. However, ‘thinking’ and ‘willing’ are not the only ‘spiritual’ activities which enable our physical actions to connect with the world outside us. There is another, that is, ‘judging’; when individual human’s free ‘willing’ is involved in the choice and decision of not only private matters but also public affairs, this is the moment that ‘judging’ is required in our lives. Arendt thinks that ‘judging’ plays an important role to link ‘thinking’ and ‘willing’, which are basically private activities inside of our mind, with the outer world by making them engaged in issues of the public with imagination and empathy for responsibility of common world. This thesis will examine the pedagogical implication of ‘natality’ in Hannah Arendt’s thought. Arendt argues that education should be regarded separately from politics because education is the affair between educators (adults) and the educated (children) unlike politics which deals with the inter-relationship between independent adults. If education is defined as the affair between children and their educators, it should be inevitable to consider ‘natality’. From Arendt’s point of view, ‘worldlessness’ of ‘labor’ and ‘instrumentality’ of ‘work’ make us see human life only within the paradigm of ‘need-satisfaction’ and ‘ends-means’. Also she thinks that the deficiency of individual capability to ‘thinking’, ‘willing’ and ‘judging’ could make us unable to seek a solution for common world at the moment of a challenge. In this sense, Arendt’s thought proposes a meaningful philosophical insight on what to do for a better education in modern societies. Recognition of ‘natality’, according to this idea, should be a philosophical foundation of all education; to learn taking a responsibility for their ‘action’ of ‘vita activa’ trough the comprehension of ‘forgiveness’ and ‘promise’, and to learn ‘judging’ of ‘vita contemplativa’ through the awareness of that our decision always leaves a lasting legacy in this world. The process to teach these, after all, requires inculcating the children with ‘imagination’ and ‘empathy’. Arendt’s education of ‘natality’ intends to preserve the newness of the children (newly-born human beings) for new common world. In this conception of education, the educator must equip expertise and authority but his or her authority should be gained by the love of and responsibility for the children. In the end, education of ‘natality’ is to make the children realize how to respect the meaning of their natality which will as a result lead them to a responsible adult life in common world by well communicating with and responding to the others. 우리는 모두 ‘탄생’을 통해 이 세계에 나타난다. 인간의 탄생은 모든 것에 우선 하는 존재론적 사건으로 우리는 ‘태어남’으로 인해 우리가 속한 이 세계에서 자기 삶을 시작할 수 있는 기회를 얻게 된다. 그리고 이전 세계는 우리의 탄생이 가져오는 ‘새로움’을 받아들임으로써 지속적으로 새로워지게 된다. 한나 아렌트는 이러한 인간 탄생의 문제에 주목하면서 서구 전통 철학으로부터 이어져 온 절대적 진리 추구와 합리적 이성 중심의 사유 체계를 비판한다. 그리고 이러한 비판의 연장선상에서 아렌트는 탄생이 인간의 개별적 삶에 대한 이야기와 다른 존재와의 관계에 더 집중하도록 한다고 주장한다. 왜냐하면 인간의 탄생은 우리가 태어나기 전부터 있어 왔고, 우리가 떠난 후에도 남을 우리들 모두의 세계와 관계하기 때문이다. 아렌트는 이러한 논의를 자신의 사상 ― ‘활동적 삶’과 ‘정신적 삶’으로 구분 ― 을 통해 구체화한다. 우선, ‘활동적 삶’은 ‘노동’, ‘작업’, ‘행위’로, ‘정신적 삶’은 ‘사유’, ‘의지’, ‘판단’으로 구분되며, 아렌트는 이러한 삶의 활동들이 ‘탄생성’(natality)과 밀접하게 관련되어 있다고 주장한다. ‘노동’은 생명 유지를 위해 필연적인 활동이며, ‘작업’은 인간의 손으로 안정된 공간을 구성할 수 있는 활동이다. 그러나 ‘노동’은 자신의 생명 유지에만 관심을 기울여 ‘무세계성’이라는 한계를 지니며, ‘작업’은 인공 세계의 형성이라는 점에서 인간과 삶을 ‘도구화’할 수 있다고 아렌트는 지적한다. 따라서 아렌트는 “인간적 공존을 가능하게 하면서 내가 누구인지를 드러내며 유의미한 이야기를 산출하는” ‘행위’가 중요하다고 주장한다. 물론 ‘행위’ 역시 예측할 수도 되돌릴 수도 없는 한계에 직면하지만 아렌트는 ‘용서’와 ‘약속’을 통해 공동세계에서 자신의 행위로 인한 좌절을 극복하고 이에 대해 책임을 질 수 있게 된다고 강조한다. 또한, 아렌트는 ‘정신적 삶’에서 ‘사유’, ‘의지’, ‘판단’을 조명하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 먼저 아렌트는 자신이 무슨 일을 하고 있는지 깨닫지 못할 때 인간의 미래는 가장 위험스러운 상황 ― ‘악의 평범성’ ― 에 처할 수 있다면서 ‘사유’를 통해 끊임없이 자신과 대화할 수 있는 삶을 살아야 한다고 강조한다. 그러나 이러한 사유가 현상 세계에서 어떤 방식으로 드러나느냐가 중요하다는 점에서 아렌트는 자연스레 ‘의지’를 탐구하게 된다. 그리고 아렌트는 개별적 인간이 지닌 자유의 ‘의지’가 단지 선택과 결정이라는 개인적 차원에 머물지 않고 공적인 삶을 위해 보장되어야 하는 ‘무엇’이라고 주장함으로써 궁극적으로 윤리적․도덕적 차원의 정신 활동으로서 ‘판단’을 고찰한다. ‘판단’에서 아렌트는 인간이 공동세계에서 소통할 수 있도록 해주는 상상력과 공감력을 강조한다. 이는 아렌트에게 있어서 사적 세계에 머물 수 있는 ‘사유’와 ‘의지’를 소통가능한 공적 공간으로 이끌어낸다는 점에서 공동세계를 위한 책임으로서 중요하다. 본 논문은 아렌트가 인간 삶의 활동들과 관련하여 그 중요한 근간으로 여기고 있는 탄생성의 교육적 의미를 고찰한다. 아렌트는 교육이 어른과 아이의 관계에 관한 일로서 어른과 어른 사이의 정치와는 구분되어야 할 영역이며, 근본적으로 인간의 탄생을 본질로 해야 하는 일이라고 강조한다. 이러한 관점에서 아렌트는 ‘노동’의 ‘무세계성’과 ‘작업’의 ‘도구성’ 그리고 ‘사유’, ‘의지’, ‘판단’ 능력의 부재는 인간과 삶을 ‘욕구-충족’과 ‘목적-수단’의 획일적 패러다임 안에서 이해하도록 하고 다양한 삶의 상황들에 대하여 공동세계를 위한 답을 내릴 수 없는 위기에 직면하도록 함으로써 우리 교육이 해결해야 할 문제가 무엇인지를 보여주었다. 아렌트적 입장에서 본 논문은 탄생성에 근거하여 ‘활동적 삶’의 ‘행위’로, ‘정신적 삶’의 ‘판단’으로 교육적 대안을 모색한다. 전자의 교육은 이 세계를 위한 ‘새로움’의 창출이라는 점에서 ‘용서’와 ‘약속’을 통해 자신의 행위에 책임지도록 함으로써 인간의 행위가 미래 공동세계를 위한 희망으로 실재화될 수 있도록 하는 일과 관련된다. 후자의 교육은 관습과 편견으로부터 벗어나 공동세계를 위해서 우리가 무엇을 남기고 또 무엇을 넘겨줄 것인가를 결정할 때 ‘인간이 태어났다’는 사실이 그 기준이 되어야 함을 인식시킴으로써 아이들이 이 세계를 위한 책임있는 판단을 할 수 있도록 ‘상상력’과 ‘공감력’을 길러주는 삶의 실제적 과업이 될 것이다. 이로써 아렌트의 ‘탄생성’ 교육이 공동세계를 위한 책임으로서 어떻게 아이들의 새로움을 보호하면서 이를 세계에 소개할 것인지를 목적으로 한다는 사실을 확인하게 된다. 이때 교육자는 이 세계를 아이들에게 소개하는 대변자로서 다양한 교육적 상황에서 ‘계획하지 않음’ 조차 계획할 수 있는 전문성을 지닌 존재로서 교육적 권위를 확립해 갈 수 있어야 한다. 교육에서 권위는 성인인 우리들이 이 세계를 위해 그리고 앞으로 계속될 세계를 위해 아이들을 사랑하고 책임지는 일이면 충분할지 모른다. 따라서 ‘탄생성’ 교육은 학교교육 이후에 아이들이 공동세계를 위해 행위하고 판단할 줄 아는 책임있는 성인으로 자라도록 그들의 탄생성을 존중하고 그들을 끊임없이 사랑하고 또 책임지는 일일 것이다.

『노자』에 나타난 교육자의 자질 연구

김정화 고려대학교 대학원 2017 국내박사

A Study on ethical qualifications of a teacher derived form Lao Tzu This study aims to draw ethical qualifications of a teacher, which are essential for students to help to build their moral character. After examining the process of self-cultivation from Lao Tzu, I analyze the metaphors representing qualifications of a sage who embody the Tao through self-cultivation. Although the importance of humanistic education has been emphasized recently, academic achievement-oriented society has prevented humanistic education from implementing in the school field. Nevertheless, humanistic education has been reason for the school to exist from ancient to modern and value not to make light of. It is changes in the attitudes of a teacher who play a key role in humanistic education. Therefore, I examine closely the values from Lao Tzu's philosophy that lead a teacher to change his or her attitudes towards students. For better understanding I need to define the concept and nature of “Tao(道, Way)” and “Te(德, Virtue)”, the basic ideas of Lao Tzu. Because Tao is inherent in humans as Te, humans can meet with Tao through virtue. Therefore, in order to restore virtue as its original nature, human beings must abandon their artificiality. According to Lao Tzu, if we remove our artificiality and embody our virtue, we, ones of ordinary people can become an ideal personality through discipline. The theory on self-cultivation involved in Lao Tzu, is based on a clear perception of Tao and proceeds through the following process until it is accomplished. First, as a stage of perception of Tao, it is a step to realize that human beings as mortals can not grasp both infinitely changing objects and realities of objects, and therefore 學, Hak should be abandoned and Tao must be executed. Second, it is a step of 致虛, Chihu through 守靜, Sujeong to discard the prejudices, stereotypes, and established knowledge which prohibit us to accept truth and reality. Third, it is the stage of 少私寡欲, Sosakwayok. To reduce personal feelings and greed is to exclude ‘ego-centered tendency’, and it is necessary to pass through this stage to properly recognize Tao. Fourth, it is the stage of ‘abstinence’. It is a process of positive and active fostering that does not undermine the naturalness of oneself handed down when human beings are born. The last step in the cultivation is 柔弱, Youyak. The softest thing in the world is a natural and relaxed state in which the act humbles himself like water and infant baby, It is the final step leading to the saint of 玄德, Hyunduk. The process of fostering self-cultivation described above is naturally connected to each other rather than being separated step by step. The image of an ideal personality that is made through this process is likened to water[水], valley[谿], log[樸], and baby[嬰兒]. Water[水] represents a form of humility that gently lowers itself, and the valley emptying itself and lowering itself symbolize infinite inclusiveness. ‘An uncarved block[樸]’ represents the wholeness open to all possibilities, baby[嬰兒] metaphorizes an ideal personality with a softness embodying virtues inherent in humans. Through the qualifications of a saint shown in the Lao Tzu, the following implications can be drawn to the teacher. First, the attitude of 少私寡欲, Sosakwayok helps a teacher have the qualifications to communicate with students with an open mind that is free from self-centeredness. The teacher has a genuine capacity for sympathy with the students with his or her mind without prejudice or stereotypes. Not only the students who are good among the students but also the students who are not good can learn goodness. Second, the attitude of 上善若水, Sangsunyaksu implicates that it is important for a teacher to deal with his or her students in a way that is respectful. Water[水] liking to be found in low places, and the heart liking to be deep like a pond, and sky liking to give, all suggest that consideration does not mean words but actions. Third, a sage who has an insight reminds the teacher that it is important to have a good sense of grasping 幾微, Gimi. Those who have a good sense of grasping and handle things can work easily and quickly without hurrying because they don’t think and talk and act what they do not have to think and talk and act. Fourth, the attitude of 和光同塵, Hwakwangdongjin who lives in harmony with the people of the world, means that the horizontal relationship between teachers and students, and furthermore, if possible, teachers should take the attitude of lowness, 處下, Cheoha. Fifth, the attitude of 行不言之敎, Hangbulunchigyo implies that it is important for the teacher to show the initiative first. When the teacher first set an example by acting without words, the student seemed to be indirectly influenced and educated naturally. Sixth, the attitude of modesty in 致虛守靜, Chihusujeong make the teacher understand virtue of humility. In order for a teacher to truly communicate with a student, he or she must first have a humble attitude, which naturally follows when the teacher’s attitude toward knowing is right. According to Lao Tzu, “the best is a thing you do not know while you know,” and the humble posture of a teacher thinking that he or she does not know the students may be a shortcut to understand students rightly. If a teacher keeps in mind that students always continue to grow, humility will be followed. This research is designed to contribute to humanistic education by suggesting ethical qualifications of a teacher shown in Lao Tzu, which are essential for students to help to build their moral character. The teacher used to command of the situations of students is apt to make them to be passive. However, with the open and humble attitude, the students are willing to do their own jobs spontaneously. The main point of Lao Tzu’s philosophy is that tender attitude toward the students on education can be effective to make them voluntarily participate rather than submissively. In conclusion, the change on the attitude of teachers toward students is expected to have the positive effect on education.

도덕교육에서의 정서에 관한 연구

고미숙 高麗大學校 1999 국내박사