근대 중국 여성의 직업세계

千聖林(Chun Sunglim) 동양사학회 2006 東洋史學硏究 Vol.96 No.-

Economic power is the essential factor to determine women's social status. It was only after around 1930 that China enacted laws that gave women the rights to work and to inherit properties. Following this change, women came to have various jobs; some ended up as manual laborers such as factory girls, prostitutes, and maids while others served as mental workers like lawyers, teachers, doctors, nurses. and accountants. In addition, women also worked as waitresses, office girls, shopgirls, typists, police women and actresses. The expansion of the availability of jobs for women came in tandem with modernization of China. In this paper, I would examine the world of Chinese women's works during about a century from the opening of Chinese ports to foreign countries to the founding of the People' Republic of China. More specifically, this study would inspect types and conditions of Chinese women's work, social recognition of their work and the social change resulting from the increased entry of women into public affairs. The women and labor issues were regarded as the two most important social problems at the close of 19th century and the early 20th century in China and both would be dealt with in this study. As observed in this paper, women could remarkably expand their domain of jobs as they heightened their educational levels. Yet, the percentage of working women was still low. It was 1-9% varying from region to region. Furthermore, many jobs, were limited to non-married women except for such professions as doctors and professors. In fact, the vast majority of the working women were unskilled laborer of so-called secondary labour markets and most of the rest served as maids. And, even these laborers and maids often resorted to becoming prostitutes. Because of the narrow labour market and the lack of business even for educated women, women were not passionate about getting their professions. Office girls were called 'flower vases', and women who married men of high social standing by taking advantage of their certificates of graduation from universities were called 'empress of college'. Likewise, the status of working women in early 20th century China was still in its 'infancy level' according to an intellectual at those time. Despite such limitation, however, women did improve their social status at home and in society through their increased economic activities. Those married working women came to have more voice In society, and unmarried working women got more autonomy in marriage and other matters. The advent and growth of the working women brought about a change in ideology then. Even though the majority of Chinese failed to break from the convention, I assert that sprouts of change have always been started from minority!

기업조직의 특성이 여성관리자의 일-삶(work-life)균형에 미치는 영향

신동은(Dong Eun Shin) 한국사회조사연구소 2015 사회연구 Vol.- No.27

여성의 관리직 · 전문직 진출이 확대되고 있지만, 일 중심의 근로관이 지배적인 한국 사회에서 여성이 겪는 일과 삶 사이의 갈등은 심하다. 이 연구의 목적은 기업조직의 어떠한 특성이 여성관리자의 일과 삶의 균형에 영향을 주는가를 분석하는 것이다. 이를 위해 2012년에 여성관리자 2,042명을 대상으로 조사한 여성관리자패널을 이용하였다. 이 연구의 핵심적인 발견은 다섯 가지로 정리된다. 첫째, 직무 자율성은 여성관리자의 일-삶 균형에 큰 영향을 미친다. 직무 자율성이 증가할수록 여성관리자의 일-삶 갈등이 완화되고, 동시에 일-삶 촉진이 강화된다. 둘째, 상사의 지지는 여성관리자의 일-삶 균형에 중요한 역할을 한다. 상사의 지지가 높을수록 여성관리자의 일-삶 갈등이 감소하고, 동시에 일-삶 촉진이 증가한다. 셋째, 공식화 및 성과제 수준이 높을수록 여성관리자가 경험하는 일-삶 촉진이 증가한다. 넷째, 위의 세 가지 효과는 장시간 근로 여부에 따라 상이한 결과를 보인다. 마지막으로, 장시간 근로, 집단적 조직문화, 성차별 경험은 여성관리자의 일-삶 갈등에 큰 영향을 준다. 장시간 근로할수록, 집단적 조직문화가 강조될수록, 그리고 성차별을 경험할수록 여성관리자의 일-삶 갈등이 증가한다. More women advance to managerial and professional positions in Korea today than in the past. However, Korean women experience high levels of conflict between work and life since work takes priority over one's personal and family life in Korea. The goal of this research is to analyze the effects of organizational characteristics on women managers' work-life balance. Using data from a nationwide survey of 2,042 women managers, I find that organizational characteristics give a strong influence on women managers' work-life balance. First, job autonomy plays an important role in women managers' work-life balance. Women managers' work-to-life conflict reduces and work-to-life facilitation increases when they have higher job autonomy. Second, supports from supervisors greatly influences women managers' work-life balance. Women managers' work-to-life conflict is reduced and work-to-life facilitation increases when they have greater support from their supervisors. Third, formalization of personnel practices enhances women's work-to-life facilitation. Fourth, the three effects above show different degrees of results depending on the presence of long working hours. Finally, women managers experience more work-life conflict when working long hours, working in organizations with collective organizational culture and facing gender discrimination.

1920년대 중국의 모성과 직업 담론―《婦女雜志》를 중심으로

박난영 한국중국소설학회 2012 中國小說論叢 Vol.37 No.-

《Women’s Magazine》(Funüzazhi) is a magazine about feminist movement and its transition in the early 20th century Chinese New Culture Era and was published from 1915 to 1931. Read primarily by female students and housewives with medium level education, 《Women’s Magazine》 introduced various issues, such as good housewives, new women, marriage and divorce, family problems, prostitutes and socialist women. This paper analyzes articles in 《Women’s Magazine》 to study the process of how women’s range of jobs increased after the First World War. Moreover, this paper also discusses whether it is reasonable that females have jobs, as the number of women with jobs increases, and how to solve the conflict between working and motherhood. Through this analysis, the oppressed reality of women’s lives that surfaced from the private sphere to the public sphere can be demonstrated in detail. Motherhood was praised as “national mother”, shaped as a collective cultural concept during the 19th western revolutionist movement. Even though Ellen Key’s theory that working can damage motherhood became prevalent in the motherhood debate, it could not prevent women from working. Pregnancy and birth is about sex, and thus natural, while nurture is about gender, and thus a consequence of socioculture. The problem with motherhood myths is that women are overwhelmed disproportionately with costs of nurture. 《Women’s Magazine》 can be regarded as the first voice about women’s independence after May 1st New Culture Era. Society demanded that women transform from good housewives to independent working women during the period between 1910 to 1920. However, as more women had jobs and became independent, traditional views were expressed. As expectations about women’s jobs and those about the role in a family crashed, the choice between work and family became one of the major problems that women in 20’s face. The conflict between the role as a good housewife and a working woman introduced in the modern China is an ongoing problem that is yet to be solved. In the current times, where women’s participation in the public sphere is increasingly active, giving birth and nurturing the next generation are not only in the private sphere but also important issues in the public sphere that need to be solved to prevent women’s tendency to not have babies.

1970년대 여성 노동자 아카이빙 방법론 연구 : 전시 <Women & Work : A Document on the Division of Labour in Industry>를 중심으로

이혜린,박주석 한국기록학회 2020 기록학연구 Vol.0 No.63

<Women & Work>, in collaboration with Mary Kelly, Kay Hunt and Margaret Harrison, tells the story of workers in the 1970s. Since the late 1960s, the world has undergone many political and social changes, and social movements have been active to protect the socially underprivileged, including women, children and workers. This phenomenon led to the diversification of the collection of the general public, the community, and the minority, and the expansion of the artist’s political remarks and themes in the art world. <Women & Work>, completed in conjunction with these social issues, surveyed and recorded the reality of workers in a factory in London and produced it as a artwork. <Women & Work> is a collaborative work of three artists, a record of workers in the 1970s, and a record of the labor situation, factory, and even the history of the region. Therefore, this study examined the methods and features of <Women & Work>, which dealt with the lives of women workers in the 1970s, based on social conditions. 영국에서 활동한 메리 켈리와 케이 헌트, 마가렛 해리슨이 협업한 전시 <Women & Work>는 1970년대 여성 노동자들의 이야기를 다루고 있다. 1960년대 후반을 기점으로 전 세계는 정치적·사회적으로 많은 변화를 겪었다. 그 흐름과 같은 맥락으로, 기록학에서는 일반인이나 공동체, 소수 계층을 대상으로 한 수집의 다양화를 강조했고, 예술계에서는 정치적 발언 혹은 노동자, 페미니즘 등 주제의 확대로 이어졌다. 이런 사회적 상황으로 세 명의 작가는 기록학과 예술계에서 주요 쟁점이 된 노동자와 여성의 삶에 주목하고, 이를 공론화하기 위한 전시 <Women & Work>를 개최했다. 이 전시는 공장에서 일하는 이들의 노동 현실과 여성으로서 겪었던 차별, 가정 내에서의 가사 분담 등 당대의 사회적 문제들을 다루고 있다. 작가들은 이를 효과적으로 전달하기 위해 노동자들과의 인터뷰, 사진과 영상 촬영, 관련 문서 수집 등의 방법을 사용해 객관적인 사실을 제공하는 것에 중점을 두었다. 따라서 <Women & Work>는 세 명의 작가가 협업한 미술작품인 동시에 1970년대의 노동 현실, 그리고 지역의 역사를 담고 있는 기록물로 평가할 수 있다. 이에 본 연구는 1970년대 사회적 상황을 바탕으로 영국의 여성 노동자를 다룬 <Women & Work>의 내용을 분석하고 특징을 살펴본다. 나아가 기록물과 기록행위를 활용한 예술작품을 다양한 시선과 입장을 도출할 수 있는 방법론 중 하나로 평가해 이를 기록의 사회적·정보적 가치의 범주로 고찰한다.

기혼 직장여성의 삶의 질 경로에 관한 연구 - 경북 경산시를 중심으로 -

허숙민,최원석 부산대학교 여성연구소 2014 여성학연구 Vol.24 No.1

The purpose of this study is to closely examine causality on quality of life in married working women. For this, the survey subjects were randomly sampled the married career women aged over 30 who dwell in Gyeongsan city of Gyeongsangbuk-do Province. It widely distributed totally 200 copies and then used 148 effective analytical materials as the final analytical data among the collected questionnaires. Structural Equation Model was used after analyzing the mean & standard deviation, t- and F-test, and correlation in order to examine the measurement variable as an analytical method. As a result of analysis, the married working women’s gender role attitude was formed the path of perfect mediating effect on quality of life after passing through the women policy satisfaction. The credibility of the administration in the local government could be known to have perfect mediating effect even on quality of life after passing through the women policy satisfaction. Suggesting a plan for promoting married working women’s quality of life based on the results of this study, first of all, the married career women’s quality of life originates greatly from which our society regards household labor as woman’s role yet. Thus, there is a need of supporting the working women so that work and family life can coexist. In such context, the policy-based measure is demanded that can lead to men’s participation in household chores and childrearing. Second, a women policy plan is demanded for vitalizing family- friendly system available for changing the traditional gender-role value that is left in our society, given considering that the more the married working women stick to the traditional gender-role value, the lower result the women policy satisfaction was shown. Third, the women policy of considering region-based characteristic needs to be mapped out, through promoting credibility in the local government, when considering the path of perfect mediating effect that the credibility in the local government passes through the women policy satisfaction on the married career women’s quality of life. For this, a study of research institution for women family policy by local government will need to be activated. 본 연구의 목적은 기혼 직장여성의 삶의 질에 관한 인과적 관계를 규명하기 위한 것이다. 이를 위해 조사대상은 경상북도 경산시에 거주하는 30세 이상 기혼 직장 여성을 임의표집 하였으며, 총 200부를 배포하여 회수된 설문지 중 유효 분석 자료 148부를 최종 분석 자료로 사용하였다. 분석방법으로는 측정변수를 검토하기 위한 평균 및 표준편차, t 및 F 검증, 상관관계 분석을 한 후 구조방정식 모형을 이용하였다. 분석결과, 기혼 직장여성의 성역할태도는 여성정책만족도를 거쳐서 삶의 질에 완전매개효과 경로가 형성되었으며, 지방정부 행정의 신뢰도가 여성정책만족도를 거쳐 삶의 질에도 완전매개효과가 있음을 알 수 있었다. 본 연구의 결과를 바탕으로 기혼 직장여성의 삶의 질 증진을 위한 방안을 제시해보면 우선, 기혼 직장여성의 삶의 질은 아직까지 우리 사회가 가사노동의 영역을 여성의 역할로 간주하는 데에서 기인하는 바가 크므로 여성발전기본법에 명시된 구체적인 정책들을 실행해 나가는 것이 필요하다. 둘째, 기혼 직장여성은 전통주의 성역할 태도를 견지할수록 여성정책만족도가 낮은 결과를 나타내고 있음을 고려해 볼 때 우리 사회는 잔존하고 있는 전통주의적 성역할 가치관을 변화시킬 수 있는 여성정책 방안이 요구된다. 셋째, 기혼 직장여성의 삶의 질은 지방정부 행정의 신뢰성이 여성정책만족도를 거치는 완전매개효과 경로를 감안할 때, 지방자치단체는 신뢰성 증진을 통하여 지역별 특성을 고려한 여성정책을 입안하는 것이 필요하다. 이를 위해 광역단체별 여성가족정책연구기관의 연구가 활성화 되어야 할 것이다.

중년 전업주부와 직장여성의 헤어스타일 인식

노원주(Won Ju Roh),문금옥(Keum Ok Mun),권오혁(Oh Hyeok Kwon) 한국인체미용예술학회 2016 한국인체미용예술학회지 Vol.17 No.4

Middle-aged women who have been active in consumption as the leading figure of economic activities emphasize quality in their lives and concentrate on taking care of their look. This study attempted to figure out how the consumption-oriented, middle-aged housewives and working women see their hairstyles and give the beauty salons targeting these middle-aged women help in their marketing. In terms of analysis techniques, frequency and percentage were estimated to investigate the general characteristics of the subjects. To examine the factors which change middle-aged women’s hairstyles, their perception on hairstyles and current hairstyles, t-test, one-way ANOVA, χ² (chi-square) and frequency analysis were performed. The study results found the followings: First, both middle-aged housewives and working women were highly aware that a hairstyle has a significant effect on a person’s image. In addition, a slight difference was found by age, marital status, educational background, occupation and monthly income without statistical significance. Second, in terms of middle-aged women’s current hairstyles, a short wavy hairstyle was most popular in both middle-aged housewives and working women, followed by a medium wavy hairstyle. In both middle-aged housewives and working women, a significant difference was found in terms of monthly income. Third, according to middle-aged women’s perception of hairstyles, both middle-aged housewives and working women loved short hair in average with significant difference by age, marital status and occupation. In terms of preference of a perm, it was average in both middle-aged housewives and working women with statistically significant difference.

기혼 취업여성의 부부친밀감과 성평등의식이 일 만족도에 미치는 영향: 일⋅가정 갈등의 매개효과 중심

김태숙 학습자중심교과교육학회 2022 학습자중심교과교육연구 Vol.22 No.16

Objectives This study investigated the effects of marital intimacy and gender equality consciousness on job satisfaction among married working women, and examines the mediating effect of work-family conflict in these influence relationships. Methods As for the research method, a quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted by selecting 2,083 married and working women as the study subjects in the Women and Family Panel Survey 2018 (9,602 women). For data analysis, SPSS 25 program was used. In order to verify the mediating effect of work-family conflict, the three-step analysis method of Baron & Kenny (1986) was selected. Results A summary of the results of this study is as follows. First, married working women's marital intimacy was found to have a statistically significant (+) effect on job satisfaction (p<.01). Second, the gender equality consciousness of married working women was found to have a statistically significant positive (+) effect on job satisfaction (p<.05). In addition, marital intimacy was found to have a positive effect on reducing work-family conflict, which showed a statistically significant result (p<.01). Third, marital intimacy alleviated work-family conflict, and alleviated work-family conflict had a positive effect on improving work satisfaction at work (p<.001), and gender equality awareness also reduced work-family conflict. It was confirmed that work-family conflict that was alleviated and alleviated increased work satisfaction (p<.001). Conclusions Based on this, in order to improve job satisfaction of married working women, it will be necessary to intervene in social welfare practices, such as developing programs and building infrastructure to increase marital intimacy and awareness of gender equality. In addition, the government, local governments, and local communities should connect and expand a family-friendly system that can reduce work-family conflict. Therefore, this study intends to provide the implications and basic data for improving job satisfaction among married working women. 목적 본 연구는 기혼 취업여성의 부부친밀감과 성평등의식이 일 만족도에 미치는 영향을 파악하였으며, 이들 영향 관계에서 일⋅가정 갈등의 매개효과를 검증하는 것이다. 방법 연구방법은 여성가족패널조사 2018(여성 9,602명)에서 기혼취업 여성 2,083명을 연구대상자로 선정하여 양적 횡단조사방법을 실시하였다. 자료분석은 SPSS 25 프로그램을 사용하였다. 일⋅가정 갈등의 매개효과를 검증하기 위해 Baron & Kenny(1986) 의 3단계 분석방법을 선택하였다. 결과 이를 통한 본 연구결과의 요약은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 기혼 취업여성의 부부친밀감은 일 만족도에 통계적으로 유의미한정(+)적영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다(p<.01). 둘째, 기혼 취업여성의 성평등의식은 일 만족도에 통계적으로 유의미한 정(+)적 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다(p<.05). 또한 부부친밀감은 일⋅가정 갈등을 감소시키는 긍정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났으며, 이는통계적으로 유의미한 결과를 보여주고 있었다(p<.01). 셋째, 부부친밀감이 일⋅가정 갈등을 완화시키고 완화된 일⋅가정 갈등은직장에서의 일 만족도를 향상시키는데 긍정적인 영향을 미쳤으며(p<.001), 또한 성평등의식은 일⋅가정 갈등을 완화시키고 완화된일⋅가정 갈등은 일 만족도를 증가시키는 것을 확인하였다(p<.001). 결론 이를 바탕으로 기혼 취업여성의 일 만족도를 향상시키기 위해 부부친밀감, 성평등의식을 높일 수 있는 프로그램 개발과 인프라구축 등 사회복지실천 개입이 필요할 것이다. 또한 일⋅가정 갈등을 낮출 수 있는 가족친화적인 제도를 정부와 지자체, 지역사회가연계⋅확대해야 할 것이다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 기혼 취업여성의 일 만족도 향상을 위한 함의와 기초자료를 제공하고자 한다.

Informal Work from Home: Understanding Vulnerability and Well-being among Women in Kudumbashree Microenterprises

Daigy Varghese,Shubha Ranganathan 숙명여자대학교 아시아여성연구원 2022 Asian Women Vol.38 No.4

Research on women’s labor in the informal sector largely tends to focus on the exploitation of women through intense and prolonged physical work, extra work hours, wage disparities, work irregularities, and financial insecurity. With respect to microfinance in particular, the question has often been about whether microfinance initiatives work to empower women and redress gender inequalities. In line with previous scholarship on the complex and contextual nature of power, this paper takes a micro- level perspective, focusing on the specific reasons that push women into the informal sector and their strategies to deal with everyday challenges. We draw from an ethnographic study of women working in Kudumbashree, a women’s empowerment program in Kerala that helps women start microenterprises supported by microcredits. Our research found that Kudumbashree tends to privilege women who can make the most of opportunities to work from or near the home. Setting up a workspace from home or working near the house is important for the flexibility it provides women by allowing them to earn without compromising their everyday family responsibilities. Additionally, working in an all-woman environment in a familiar neighborhood is advantageous. This paper draws on the findings of an ethnographic study to unpack the concept of vulnerability. Within the heteronormative family structure, vulnerability emerges as a complex phenomenon that is negotiated. On the one hand, informal work is often viewed in terms of the exploitative working conditions and gender discrimination in society. On the other hand, despite the less-than-ideal working conditions, by becoming an earning member of the family, over time, women are able to establish relationships beyond the family, thereby improving their access to resources and networks. When seen from the perspective of wellbeing, then, contextualized in the specific locations of women, we find that microfinance initiatives such as Kudumbashree enable women to negotiate their challenges and attenuate their vulnerabilities through the development of strategies, networks, and resources in solidarity with others.

기혼 직장여성에서 피로 증상과 관련요인

이경재(Kyung-Jae Lee),김주자(Joo Ja Kim) 한국역학회 2008 Epidemiology and Health Vol.30 No.1

  Objectives: To investigate the related factors on fatigue symptoms among married working women.   Methods: Data was analyzed from a cross-sectional survey of 902 married working women. Information was obtained about fatigue symptoms, sociodemographics, health behaviors, and job-related characteristics. Multiple regression tested the related factors on fatigue symptoms in married working women.   Results: Fatigue was more common in office working women than in manufacture working women. Mean fatigue symptom was significantly higher in office working than in manufacture working women(p=0.002). In a multiple regression analysis, fatigue was associated with educational level, alcohol drinking state, stress, and overtime work in a multiple regression analysis(p<0.001).   Conclusions: Our findings suggest that fatigue is affected by job-related factor like overtime work with educational level, alcohol drinking state, or stress. Further research will be needed to establish preventive strategies for controlling the negative effects of fatigue on health stats of married working women.

기혼 여성근로자의 근로조건이 결혼생활만족에 미치는 영향 - 남편의 가사노동분담 매개효과를 중심으로

선민정 ( Sun Min-jung ),주영하 ( Ju Young-ha ) 부산대학교 여성연구소 2022 여성학연구 Vol.32 No.2

This study suggests a direction in the labor market to improve the marital satisfaction of working women. It examined whether husbands’ housework share had a mediating effect on marital satisfaction, which was affected by the warking conditions of married working women. This study used 8th female family panel data and selected 1,251 married working women. We verified the mediating effect of husbands’ housework share by performing multiple regression analysis on married working women’s working conditions (wage, permanent worker or not, and regular employment or not), the husband’s housework share, and marital satisfaction. The main results of this study were as follows: 1) the wages of married working women affected their marital satisfaction, and 2) there was a mediating effect of husbands’ housework share on marital satisfaction that was affected by the wages of married working women. Based on the results of this study, it was proposed to improve the poor labor environment of married working women and eliminate gender inequality in the labor market and at home.