초국가사(超國家史) 방법론과 동아시아사의 서술

류바오취안(劉寶全) 가천대학교 아시아문화연구소 2016 아시아문화연구 Vol.42 No.-

초국가사(Transnational History)는 사학연구의 새로운 방법론이다. 21세기 이후 하버드대학교 역사학가 이리에 아키라(Akira Iriye) 교수 등의 창도로 사학계에서 자리 잡았다. Transnational란 국가적 신분 및 국경을 넘는 것이다. 초국가사 연구는 초국가적 배경, 국가 간의 교류 및 영향, 다국적인 시각, 그리고 “하위정치” 등 요소에 특별히 관심을 준다. 초국가사 연구는 다국적 사건 및 다국적 협력, 다국적 운동, 다국적 행위, 이민 및 디아스포라 등 면에서 역사를 서술하는 것을 중요시한다. 전통적인 역사연구는 늘 “민족-국가”라는 단속(團束) 아래서 진행해 왔다. 초국가사 연구는 이러한 단속에서 벗어나자고 강조하면서도 민족국가사를 대체하려는 것이 아니다. 초국가사 연구는 민족국가를 더 방대한 역사 환경에 넣고 외래 요소들이 본국역사 및 정체성에 미친 영향을 인증한다. 이를 통해 민족국가사에 대한 이해를 풍부하고 깊이 있게 한다. 초국가사는 국가 간의 의존의식 및 국제주의관념을 제창하고 글로벌의식 및 세계공민 관념을 양성하며 공동한 문화적 정체성 및 세계공민신분을 만드는 데 노력한다. 초국가사 연구 방법론은 국별사(國別史)연구, 세계사연구 그리고 미시적 연구에서 다 사용할 수 있다. 초국가사 방법론을 이용하여 동아시아사를 서술하자면 일국사에 대한 편견을 버리고 한중일 삼국이 서로 바라보는 시각이 필요하다. 이러한 시각이 있어야만 동아시아사의 전면적인 서술이 가능하다. 한중일 삼국의 학자들이 공동 편찬해 낸 『한중일이 함께 쓴 동아시아 근현대사』, 한국 고등학교에서 <동아시아사> 과정의 개설 등은 이러한 노력을 보여 주고 있다. Transnational history is a new historical methodology and became a resistless tide initiated by Akira Iriye, a historian from Harvard University, since 21st Century. Transnational means cross national identity and boundaries. Transnational history emphasizes factors in research process such as transnational background, communication, interaction, introducing multinational perspective and concerning low politics. It emphasizes on narrating history in aspects of transnational issues, cooperation, movements, actors and diaspora. Transnational history methodology stresses that history research should not be restricted by nationality-country, or be replaced by history of nationality either. It admits the influence on domestic history and characteristics by foreign elements can change and enrich the comprehension on history of nationality by putting nationality and country into a grander historical context. It advocates inter-dependence and internationalism, cultivates global awareness and citizenship concept of world, and builds cultural and world citizenship identity. Transnational history methodology can be used both in research on history of individual countries or world, and micro-examination. Narrating East Asian history by this method, we should concern on mutual perspective from China, Japan and South Korea, instead of blinded by prejudice in history of individual countries. There are some attempt on transnational history cognitive by the three countries, such as compiling the work, Modern and Contemporary History of East Asian Crossing the Borders, together, and to open the course of East Asian history in senior high school in South Korea.

초국가주의와 한국계 미국소설

육성희(Yook, Sung-Hee) 숙명여자대학교 숙명인문학연구소 2018 횡단인문학 Vol.2 No.1

국가의 경계를 가로지르는 정치적, 경제적, 문화적 변화를 가리키는 초국가주의는 현대의 사람, 자본, 기술, 정보, 상품, 이데올로기, 문화 등의 초국가적 흐름을 분석하는 데 중요한 분석틀을 제공한다. 본 논문은 1990년대 중반에 아시아계 미국문학 비평에서 감지된 초국가적 변화와 최근 한국계 미국작가들의 소설에서 발견되는 주제적 변화를 살펴봄으로써 초국가주의의 관점에서 한국계 미국소설을 소개하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 아시아계(특히 한국계) 미국문학 분야에 나타난 초국가적 패러다임의 전환은 크게 두 가지로 논의된다. 먼저 아시아계 미국문학 비평이 문화적 민족주의에서 초국가주의로 전환되는 과정 을 비평가들의 다양한 논점을 통해 살펴본다. 초국가 시대를 살아가는 한국계 미국작가들의 주제적 변화는 돈 리와 레너드 장을 위시한 2세대, 3세대 작가들의 관심이 국가와 민족의 범주 안에 갇혀있었던 한국계 미국인으로부터 초국가시대의 유동적이고 유연한 개별적인 존재로 변화하는 과정을 통해 논의된다. 또한 본 논문은 폴 윤의 [눈 사냥꾼]을 통해 한국계 미국인의 정체성이 국가나 민족에 제한되지 않고 주어진 조건과 상황에 따라 유동적으로 변화하는 초국가적 주체를 탐색하며, 이를 통해 새롭게 제시되는 공동체의 모습을 살펴본다. This paper aims to introduce Korean American novels through the lens of transnationalism. Referring to the political, economic, and cultural processes that move beyond the borders of nation-states, transnationalism has become a category of analysis for transnational flows of people, capitals, technologies, information, commodities, ideologies, culture among others. In the field of Asian American literature, the transnational turn happened in the mid-1990s and this paradigm shift has affected critics and writers in the field so that we could detect critical and thematic changes in the directions of criticism and creative writing. In order to examine these changes, this paper first looks into Asian American literary criticism with a focus on the change from cultural nationalism to transnationalism. The thematic changes of Korean American writers are discussed while exploring the interests of Don Lee and Leonard Chang in representing Korean Americans as ordinary Americans who are not necessarily identified by Korean ethnicity or national identity. The writers’ interests move from Korean Americans within the categories of nation and ethnicity further to transnational subjects whose identities are fluid and flexible through individualized Korean Americans. This paper takes Paul Yoon’s Snow Hunters: A Novel as an example that embodies transnational subjects whose identities are not confined by their ethnicity or nation of origin but flexible to the given condition and circumstances in the transnational era. In so doing, this paper tracks the critical and thematic changes emerged since the transnational turn.

Going transnational? Dynamics and Challenges of Linking Local Claims to Global Advocacy Networks in Southeast Asia

Dominique Caouette 인하대학교 국제관계연구소 2007 Pacific Focus Vol.22 No.2

In Southeast Asia, especially since the 1997 financial crisis, there has been a growing tendency, for NGOs, social movements and activist networks to organize and work transnationally. This paper explores one specific component of Sidney Tarrow’s most recent work on transnational activism, namely “the political processes that activists trigger to connect their local claims to those of others across borders and to international institutions, regimes, and processes.” In doing so, I will try to answer the following questions: Is the emergence and expansion of transnational activism in Southeast Asia comparable to other regions of the world? What are the reasons that motivate local activists and how do they inscribe their demands and claims in transnational coalitions, networks and campaigns? And, in what ways does this participation in such form of collective action affect local level activism and influence for public policy changes? Using a process tracing approach, the proposed paper will discuss transnational activism in four East Asian countries, namely the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Hong Kong. The analysis of each transnational network reveals that different methodologies and processes that are deployed to link local concerns to global advocacy. These reflect certain organizational choices linked to certain conception of social change as well as different types of domestic structures.

Transnational Actors and Foreign Policy Making in South Korea: The Case Studies

Hyun-SeokYu 한국학술연구원 2003 Korea Observer Vol.34 No.2

Korea is no exception to the new and growing influence of transnational actors in foreign policy making. Democratization and internationalization have made what was once the prerogative of Korea’s state actors (the president, bureaucrats, and others) subject to input from transnationals. This study demonstrates the increasing importance of non-state actors in Korea’s foreign policy making with two case studies. The Council for the Women Drafted for Sexual Slavery by Japan case shows how international nongovernmental organizations redefine issues so as to draw international attention and support from governments and other established international organizations. Their efforts compelled both the Korean and Japanese governments to alter policy on former Comfort Women. In a second case, the American Chamber of Commerce Korea -- a foreign based interest group for developing trade and commerce between Korea and the U.S. -- succeeded in changing Korean and U.S. foreign policy to members’ benefit. The influence of transnational actors, however, is not uniform across all policy areas. Transnational actors generally have greater impact on economic than other issues. In addition, the existence of strong domestic allies is important for the success of transnational actors’ causes, as the Council for the Women Drafted for Sexual Slavery found.

Going Ttransnational?: Dynamics and Challenges of Linking Local Claims to Global Advocacy Networks in Southeast Asia

( Dominique Caouette ) 인하대학교 국제관계연구소 2007 Pacific Focus Vol.22 No.2

In Southeast Asia, especially since the 1997 financial crisis, there has been a growing tendency, for NGOs, social movements and activist networks to organize and work transnationally. This paper explores one specific component of Sidney Tarrow`s most recent work on transnational activism, namely "the political processes that activists trigger to connect their local claims to those of others across borders and to international institutions, regimes, and processes." In doing so, I will try to answer the following questions: Is the emergence and expansion of transnational activism in Southeast Asia comparable to other regions of the world? What are the reasons that motivate local activists and how do they inscribe their demands and claims in transnational coalitions, networks and campaigns? And, in what ways does this participation in such form of collective action affect local level activism and influence for public policy changes? Using a process tracing approach, the proposed paper will discuss transnational activism in four East Asian countries, namely the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Hong Kong. The analysis of each transnational network reveals that different methodologies and processes that are deployed to link local concerns to global advocacy. These reflect certain organizational choices linked to certain conception of social change as well as different types of domestic structures.

Mass Dictatorship and Transnational History: “Exploring the Conceptual Basis for the Connection”

YoungJun Ha(하영준) 이주사학회 2013 Homo Migrans Vol.8 No.-

연구 프로젝트로서 대중독재는 한국의 민주화 이후 출현한 박정희 체제에 대한 대중적 향수라고 하는 포스트-독재적 문제상황으로부터 기원한다. 이것은 독재를 근대화의 일탈 또는 왜곡이라는 이름하에 파문하거나, 독재를 근대화라는 미명 하에 정당화하려는 시도가 아니다. 독재에 대한 대중적 욕망을 끊임없는 재생산하는 권력기제로서, 근대화와 국민화 자체의 폭력적 성격을 밝히려는 시도이다. 대중독재론은 국민국가의 ‘정상적 예외(normal exception)’로서 20세기 독재를 자신의 연구대상으로 삼는다. 전근대적이고 비정상적이며 일탈적인 것으로 간주되는 독재라는‘예외’를 통하여 국민국가 체제라는 ‘정상’자체가 폭력과 억압의 산물임을 드러내려는 것이다. 독재 체제를 밑바닥에서 떠받치고 있는 근대적 권력과 동의의 기제들을 드러내려는 시도는 단순히 과거를 어떻게 기억해야 하는가의 문제가 아니다. 우리의 욕망을 배치하고 일상을 규율하는 국민국가의 권력 기제를 어떻게 넘어설 것인가 하는 문제이기도 하다. 대중독재가 20세기 독재의 대중 동원에 대한 연구 프로젝트일 뿐만 아니라 국민국가 체제에 대한 비판적 상상력을 끊임없이 자극하고 계발하는 트랜스내셔널 역사학으로 나아가는 것은 지점이 여기에 있다. 그러나 이 둘의 관계는 여전히 모호하다. 이 논문은 이론적, 방법론적 차원에서 이 둘 사이에 관계를 시론적으로 탐구하면서, 대중독재론이 트랜스내셔널한 역사적 상상력을 제공할 수 있는 가능성을 모색하고자 시도한다. Mass dictatorship as a working hypothesis originated in these post-dictatorial situations as the problematic emerged after Korea’s democratization. It is not about justifying dictatorship as an indispensable condition of modernization. It is an attempt to illuminate the violent nature and the mechanism behind modernization and nationalization endlessly reproducing the desire of the masses for dictatorship. The Idea of mass dictatorship centers on dictatorship as a ‘normal exception’ of a nation-state. It takes the ‘exception’ of dictatorships as a prism through which the ‘normality’ of the nation-state system is revealed as a product of violence and oppression. In other words, the mass dictatorship project is an attempt to grasp the workings of power by the nation-state, through getting to the bottom of the mechanisms of modern power and consent supporting the system of dictatorship. By dealing with these problems, it opens the door to think out the possibilities of a transnational history stimulating and developing critical imaginations regarding the nation-state system. But the relationship between these two is not very clear. On what foundations, is Mass dictatorship transnational? What exactly does the appellation‘transnational’ stand for in Mass dictatorship? This paper will scrutinize the links between Mass dictatorship and a transnationalperspective for histories.

‘아래로부터’ 발생하는 초국가적 효과와 그 맥락에 대한 연구

민가영(Min Gayoung) 한국문화사회학회 2010 문화와 사회 Vol.8 No.-

본 연구는 초국가적 삶의 조건에 놓인 몽골 이주 노동자 자녀에게 국가의 의미가 구성되고 재구성되는 방식을 검토함으로써 아래로부터 발생하는 초국가적 효과와 그 맥락을 검토하려는 연구이다. 서로 다른 국가의 경계가 이들의 일상을 통해 충돌하면서 개인에 의해 어떠한 방식으로 국가의 경계가 전유되고 있는지를 살펴봄으로써 초국가적의 의미가 작동하는 방식을 아래로부터(from below) 검토하려는 목적을 지닌다. 이주한 국가 내부에서 외부자로 분류되었던 경험은 이들에게 출신국의 존재와 의미를 형성시키는 계기가 되지만 다시 이주한 출신국에서 경험한 내부의 차이를 직면하게 된다. 이 과정에서 이들은 본국에 대한 의미를 차이와 동질성 속에서 형성하게 된다. 국가의 의미를 둘러싼 이들의 협상 방식을 볼 때, 주목할 점은, 현재의 위치를 정당화하기 위해 이들은 늘 현재 규정된 위치 이상의 보충적 구조/위치를 요구하게 된다는 점이다. 즉 한국 내부의 외부적 위치에서 자신을 정당화하기 위한 근거로 몽골에 대한 기억이 형성되었고, 다시 돌아간 몽골에서는 내부의 차이 속에서 자신을 정당화하기 위한 근거로서 또 다시 한국의 경험, 다른 이주의 가능성 등이 동원된다는 점이다. 이처럼 계속 요구되는 보충적 위치들, 그리고 이것들 간의 접합 속에서 이들은 국가의 경계와 의미를 계속 협상하게 된다. 그리고 이러한 협상과정을 반복하면서 이들에게 국가의 의미는 한편에서는 법적 효력을 자신의 신분과 이동 가능성을 제한하는 실질적 영향력을 행사하는 대상이면서 동시에 초국적 전망속에서 협상 가능한 선택적 대상으로 변화하고 있다. 즉 이들이 가진 느낌, 의미, 위치가 정당화 되는 바탕/층위는 더 이상 국민국가적이지 않으며 국가의 경계에 걸쳐져 있는 초국가적 층위 위에 놓여 있는 것을 볼 수 있다. 즉 국민국가의 배타성은 이들에게 자신의 승인을 위해 보충대리 구조를 요구하게 하고, 보충 구조의 계속되는 접합을 통해 국민국가의 경계 안에 포함되지 않은 초국가적 위치성/효과가 발생하고 있는 것으로 볼 수 있다. This research aims at examining a way of contructing and reconstructing the meaning of nation from below so that examining transnational effect and context This research has a goal to reveal the way in which transnational meaning is operation from below by examining how people appropriate national boundaries in everydaylife. They came to perceive the meaning of their hometown through an experience of exclusion from Korea. They have formed meaning of their homecountry in terms of homogeniety and heterogeniety. When it comes to a way of negotiation around meaning of nation it is noteworthy that they face to need supplimentary part beyond in order to let them be recognized by current community as an alien. Memories of Mongolia were emerged in order for them to defense their marginalized position in Korea. And when they return back to Mongolia they took korean experiences in order to make their position as ‘alien’ meaningful while making difference from Mongolian with no experience of migration. Through the chain of this repositioning they are situated in a way of negotiation of national boundary. With this continuos negotiation nation becomes both institution with power to influence life and negotiable object under the condition of transnational prospect. A base in which their feeling, meaning and position are situated is no longer national but instead transnational. Through this research, we can reach at the point that nation’s exclusiveness requires supplementary part in order to operated itself and through the chain of this conjunctive transition there happens transnational effect.

National Interest or Transnational Alliances? Japanese Policy on the Comfort Women Issue

Yangmo Ku 동아시아연구원 2015 Journal of East Asian Studies Vol.15 No.2

When and why does a perpetrator state take a contrite stance on its past wrongs? More specifically, why do Japanese behaviors differ over time in addressing apology and compensation with regard to the comfort women issue? In this article I address these questions by testing two hypotheses, utilizing an instrumentalist approach and a transnationalpolitical activism model. The former posits a perpetrator state is more likely to take a contrite stance on its past misdeeds when it calculates such action is in its security and/or economic interests. The latter hypothesizes that when transnational activism is powerful and a perpetrator state is led by a progressive ruling coalition, the state is more likely to adopt conciliatory policies toward historical issues. I find that the transnational-political activism model possesses more explanatory power than instrumentalism for within-case variations in Japanese behavior toward the comfort women issue. The two approaches are not, however, mutually exclusive and are complementary in some regards. The effect of transnational activism is heightened when the target state is faced with other geopolitical incentives and/or when the target state is led by a progressive ruling coalition and has weak conservative reaction.

Haunted by Lost Language: Transnational/Translational Subjectivity in Toni Morrison’s Beloved

박선주 영미문학연구회 2010 영미문학연구 Vol.18 No.-

This paper aims at exploring ‘translation’ as a site where transnational subjectivity is imagined through the constant slippage, deferring effects, and mutually constitutive negotiations of language as exemplified in Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved. Beloved is situated in the “in-between” area of translation between two cultures and languages, and its search for transnational narratives—the alternative linguistic identities other than national language—is deeply concerned with the trope of translation, especially in that its problematic relationship with the ‘original’ explicitly predicates on the need for a broader, more fluid concept of translation. As several important translation theorists such as Jacques Derrida, Walter Benjamin, and Paul de Man as well as the cultural critics including T. Niranjana, J. Sturruck, and G. Spivak convincingly show, translation most significantly embodies the displacement, dislocation, and deferring effect of and between languages, identities and cultures. From this perspective, recognizing the close affinity of translation to border writing and exploring its underlying correspondences not only provides an essential clue to the specific translation strategy of Beloved for the African American slaves whose existence lies outside such categories as nation and national language, but also sheds light on the broader aspect of translation as cultural transfer between unequal cultures and languages. Morrison models this specific mode of translation, in order to defy the dominant discourse and epistemology of the Master’s language, and to trace an alternative linguistic possibility for speaking “the unspeakable thoughts, unspoken” of the forcibly translated subjects.

Haunted by Lost Language: Transnational/Translational Subjectivity in Toni Morrison`s Beloved

( Seon Joo Park ) 영미문학연구회 2010 영미문학연구 Vol.18 No.-

This paper aims at exploring ``translation`` as a site where transnational subjectivity is imagined through the constant slippage, deferring effects, and mutually constitutive negotiations of language as exemplified in Toni Morrison`s novel Beloved. Beloved is situated in the "in-between" area of translation between two cultures and languages, and its search for transnational narratives-the alternative linguistic identities other than national language-is deeply concerned with the trope of translation, especially in that its problematic relationship with the ``original`` explicitly predicates on the need for a broader, more fluid concept of translation. As several important translation theorists such as Jacques Derrida, Walter Benjamin, and Paul de Man as well as the cultural critics including T. Niranjana, J. Sturruck, and G. Spivak convincingly show, translation most significantly embodies the displacement, dislocation, and deferring effect of and between languages, identities and cultures. From this perspective, recognizing the close affinity of translation to border writing and exploring its underlying correspondences not only provides an essential clue to the specific translation strategy of Beloved for the African American slaves whose existence lies outside such categories as nation and national language, but also sheds light on the broader aspect of translation as cultural transfer between unequal cultures and languages. Morrison models this specific mode of translation, in order to defy the dominant discourse and epistemology of the Master`s language, and to trace an alternative linguistic possibility for speaking "the unspeakable thoughts, unspoken" of the forcibly translated subjects.