(De)colonializing postwar militarism and the Ecocritical documentary in South Korea and Japan : focused on films on (Zainichi) Korean Hibakusha and Jeju Massacre/ Gangjeong naval base

Ahn, Min-hwa 동북아시아문화학회 2019 동북아 문화연구 Vol.1 No.58

Through its representation in major films led by the United States Information Services during the postwar period, postwar militarism in Korea was positioned as a “classical modern militarism” that internalized the role of national and economic security. However, what is missing from this representation of “classical modern militarism” is the military violence that remains hidden behind it. The dropping of the atomic bombs by the U.S. in Japan is the most explicit example of military violence at the beginning of postwar militarism in East Asia. However, Korean hibakusha (A-bomb Victims) had no public recognition for a few decades, being excluded from the national bodies of both Japan and Korea. Thus, this paper attempts to visualize the ecological disaster of militarism, by analyzing two documentaries (To the Japs: South Korea A-bomb Survivors Speak out (Nunokawa Tetsuro, 1971), The Other Hiroshima: Korean A-bomb Victims Tell Their Story (Park Su-Nam, 1987), which reveal physical sufferings of Korean hibakusha who were not able to have medical treatments. The Jeju 4.3 massacre is also another example of explicit military violence which that has been tabooed in public for the decades. Moreover, there emerged recent environmental contamination issues caused by military bases on Jeju Gangjeong have begun to emerge. I examine documentary films such as Jeju Prayer (Im Heung-soon, 2012) and The Ghosts of Jeju (Regis Tremblay, 2013) that depict these issues. This paper attempts to reveal that violence by analyzing four documentaries, To the Japs, The Other Hiroshima, Jeju Prayer, and The Ghosts of Jeju, that address the physical and ecological disasters of militarism. These four films emphasize the relationship between victims’ polluted bodies and the development or contamination of land by postwar militarism. these films take “ecocriticism” under the form of ‘social documentary’ to explore ways of overcoming the legacy of militarism. Therefore, I trace how discourses of ecocriticism can draw out not only issues of industrial crisis, but can also critique of aspects of post war militarism. They offer a new ecological critique of postwar militarism and how grassroots movements working in solidarity with transnational film movements can act to protect at-risk bodies and environments from contamination by the postwar militarism.

(De)colonializing postwar militarism and the Ecocritical documentary in South Korea and Japan: focused on documentary films on (Zainichi) Korean Hibakusha and Jeju Massacre/ Gangjeong base

안민화 동북아시아문화학회 2019 동북아 문화연구 Vol.1 No.58

Through its representation in major films led by the United States Information Services during the postwar period, postwar militarism in Korea was positioned as a “classical modern militarism” that internalized the role of national and economic security. However, what is missing from this representation of “classical modern militarism” is the military violence that remains hidden behind it. The dropping of the atomic bombs by the U.S. in Japan is the most explicit example of military violence at the beginning of postwar militarism in East Asia. However, Korean hibakusha (A-bomb Victims) had no public recognition for a few decades, being excluded from the national bodies of both Japan and Korea. Thus, this paper attempts to visualize the ecological disaster of militarism, by analyzing two documentaries (To the Japs: South Korea A-bomb Survivors Speak out (Nunokawa Tetsuro, 1971), The Other Hiroshima: Korean A-bomb Victims Tell Their Story (Park Su-Nam, 1987), which reveal physical sufferings of Korean hibakusha who were not able to have medical treatments. The Jeju 4.3 massacre is also another example of explicit military violence which that has been tabooed in public for the decades. Moreover, there emerged recent environmental contamination issues caused by military bases on Jeju Gangjeong have begun to emerge. I examine documentary films such as Jeju Prayer (Im Heung-soon, 2012) and The Ghosts of Jeju (Regis Tremblay, 2013) that depict these issues. This paper attempts to reveal that violence by analyzing four documentaries, To the Japs, The Other Hiroshima, Jeju Prayer, and The Ghosts of Jeju, that address the physical and ecological disasters of militarism. These four films emphasize the relationship between victims’ polluted bodies and the development or contamination of land by postwar militarism. these films take “ecocriticism” under the form of ‘social documentary’ to explore ways of overcoming the legacy of militarism. Therefore, I trace how discourses of ecocriticism can draw out not only issues of industrial crisis, but can also critique of aspects of post war militarism. They offer a new ecological critique of postwar militarism and how grassroots movements working in solidarity with transnational film movements can act to protect at-risk bodies and environments from contamination by the postwar militarism.

예술대학의 군사주의: 연극영화과의 사례연구

구기환 한국문화사회학회 2017 문화와 사회 Vol.25 No.-

This study examined why film and theatre departments in fine art colleges are perpetuating militarism in the organization from a sociological perspective. For analysis, this article uses theoretical resources of institutionalism and organizational culture unlike preceding studies’ feminist approach. First, this paper analyzed militarism culture as identity and artistic spirit formation of individual actors and analyzed institutional logic and rhetoric for legitimacy in the organizational field. From the results, this research categorized features of militarism culture as Ritual and Rite, Organizational Regulation, Gender Rules of Role. Militarism culture is working as the formation mechanism of individual actors at college organizations. Institutional logic and rhetoric have factors of preparation for entering the field, conspicuous and ritualistic actions for dividing general society, and the common creative community. Therefore, this study’s findings reflect and illuminate why fine arts colleges have adopted militarism. Findings are significant as to why militarism influences fine arts colleges. 이 연구는 예술대학 중 연극영화과의 군사주의 현상을 조직문화이론과 제도주의 조직이론을 통해 접근한다. 특히 조직 내 개별 행위자들의 정체성 형성의 관점에서 군사주의 문화를 몇 가지 특징으로 분류하고, 이에 대한 조직 장 차원의 제도적 논리와 수사법을 정당성 획득의 차원에서 분석하였다. 그 결과 연극영화과의 군사주의 문화는 1. 의례와 의식, 2. 조직규범, 3. 성역할 등으로 구분될 수 있었으며, 개별 행위자들이 조직의 정체성 및 예술혼을 형성해가는 과정으로 군사주의 조직문화가 작용하고 있음을 확인하였다. 또 군사주의가 채택되고 유지되는 조직의 제도논리와 수사법의 측면에서 1. 준비된 예술가로서 현장 진출을 위한 준비, 2. 일반 사회와의 구별을 위한 과시적이고 의례적인 행동, 3. 자기희생과 가난의 연습공간으로써의 공동창작조직이라는 요소들을 발견할 수 있었다. 이 연구는 예술대학에서 채택하고 운영하는 군사주의 및 조직문화의 기제와 그 의미를 발굴하고 분석함으로써 군대의 이데올로기와 행동양식을 왜 사적영역에서 채택했는지를 기초적으로 탐색했다는 점에서 그 의의가 있다.

Militarism and Korean Protestant Churches

강인철 한국학중앙연구원 한국학중앙연구원 2018 Korea Journal Vol.58 No.3

With the idea that it is important to distinguish between institutional mechanisms and informal practices of Protestant militarism, in this article, I examine the relationship between Korean Protestant churches and militarism in two dimensions. Firstly, I focus on institutionalized channels and mechanisms that contribute to militarism’s direct infiltration of the church. This includes military chaplaincy, the Christian doctrine of war and peace, and doctrinal anticommunism. Active support for sending Korean troops to assist in a war of aggression and strong opposition to conscientious objector status can be said to be the result of these three factors working together. Secondly, I focus on informal practices that allow and encourage militarism to rule the daily lives and consciousnesses of Protestant believers. These include the spiritual warfare frame, foreign and North Korea missions, and domestic evangelism and church-building.

한반도 평화와 민주법학 ; 군사화와 성의 정치

김엘리 ( Kim El Li ) 민주주의법학연구회 2004 민주법학 Vol.0 No.25

대형마트 여성 노동자 투쟁의 재현과 군사주의―드라마 <송곳>을 중심으로

배상미 한국극예술학회 2018 한국극예술연구 Vol.0 No.60

This article examines how militarism influences the representation of labor activism in the 2015 television series, Songkot. Militarism is the basis upon which the sexist division of civil rights in South Korea is constructed, and therefore provides an appropriate methodology to explain gender politics in South Korean society. Even though Songkot’s narrative derives from the struggles by real laborers at a South Korean large supermarket in 2003, its structure is solidified through the trope of militarism. This paper analyzes how militarism in Songkot appears in the drama through the focalization of a labor union organizer who previously served as a platoon commander in the military, including the description of conflicts among workers or between workers and management through anecdotes coming from the organizer’s service period. As a result, this method of portrayal enables the elision of differences between the military, which protects national interests, and the labor movement, which defends class interests, and affirms the pervasive military culture in South Korea. Whereas other recent works of visual media which treat similar struggles to those featured in Songkot represent women workers as equal and active subjects in the fight with the company, and articulate the centrality of gender to the labor movement, I suggest that the representational strategy of Songkot can be considered a backlash or reaction to such progressive reflections on the sexist division of labor and South Korean labor movement. 이 논문은 드라마 <송곳>의 재현전략인 군사주의가 노동운동의 재현에 미치는 영향을 분석하였다. 군사주의는 한국에서 성차별적 시민권을 구축해온 대표적인 이데올로기로 논의되어왔다. <송곳>이 군사주의를 활용하여 대표적인 여성 노동자 투쟁인 2003년에 발생한 대형마트 여성 노동자 투쟁을 재현했다는 것은 모순적이므로 연구의 필요성이 있다. 이 논문은 <송곳>의 서사 전개 과정에서 군사주의가 활용되는 방식을 중간 관리자로서 하급 노동자들의 고용안정을 위해 노동운동에 뛰어든 특이한 전력의 노조 조직자를 설명하는 과정과, 노동자들과 사측의 갈등을 군대 일화에 비유하여 설명하는 과정에 주목하여 살펴보았다. 그 결과 이 같은 재현방식은 국가적 이익을 수호하는 군대와 계급적 이익에 입각하여 발생하는 노동운동의 차이를 뒤섞고, 한국에 만연한 군대 문화를 그대로 승인하는 효과를 낳았다. 반면, <송곳>처럼 대형마트 여성 노동자 투쟁을 소재로 다룬 영상 재현물들은 이 투쟁을 투쟁지도자가 아닌 여성 노동자들도 투쟁의 공동 주체로서 드러내고, 노동자들의 발언에 주목하여 노동과 노동운동 분석에 젠더를 중요한 요소로 고려해야할 필요성을 밝혀내었다. <송곳>의 노동운동 재현 방식은 대형마트 여성 노동자 투쟁을 다룬 재현물들이 달성한 노동 및 노동운동 안의 성차별주의에 대한 반성적 성찰을 원점으로 되돌려놓았다.

일제말기 한국 영화에 나타난 혼종성: <집 없는 천사>와 <지원병>을 중심으로

장수경 문학과영상학회 2008 문학과영상 Vol.9 No.2

This paper examines the internalization of colonialism and image aesthetics in Korean movies under late Japanese imperialism, and discusses colonialism as its central topic. The existing discourses on Angel without Home and Volunteer have shown limits by focusing only on nationalism and realism. On the contrary, this paper changes the direction from the dichotomy of the two works to the way the colonized confront imperialism in the movies and represent their desire. The first part of the paper places the re-discovery of Korean movies and the discussion of colonialism at its analytic center. The second part analyzes the dualism of colony and Naeseonilche(Joseon and Japan are one body) on the basis of orphan consciousness and the aspect of Naeseonilche appearing in Angel without Home. In the analytic process, I find the diverging point of logical rupture and hybridity in the movie from director Choi In Kyu’s inner disruption. The third part deals with the desire for modern city and militarism in Volunteer. I also focus on the distortion of Park Young Hee, the original author and An Seok Young, the director from the desire for modern city, and proceeding to militarism. In addition, I show how they revealed the ideology of imperialism and how the rupture appears in the movie. The fourth part analyzes the hybridity emerging from the collision of colony and imperialism in both works. In particular, I find that the hybridity of languages in the movies was closely related to the nation. Through the above research, I find that the two movies reflects the reality of a colony, and restores the nation by showing the hybridity through its collision against imperialism. This paper examines the internalization of colonialism and image aesthetics in Korean movies under late Japanese imperialism, and discusses colonialism as its central topic. The existing discourses on Angel without Home and Volunteer have shown limits by focusing only on nationalism and realism. On the contrary, this paper changes the direction from the dichotomy of the two works to the way the colonized confront imperialism in the movies and represent their desire. The first part of the paper places the re-discovery of Korean movies and the discussion of colonialism at its analytic center. The second part analyzes the dualism of colony and Naeseonilche(Joseon and Japan are one body) on the basis of orphan consciousness and the aspect of Naeseonilche appearing in Angel without Home. In the analytic process, I find the diverging point of logical rupture and hybridity in the movie from director Choi In Kyu’s inner disruption. The third part deals with the desire for modern city and militarism in Volunteer. I also focus on the distortion of Park Young Hee, the original author and An Seok Young, the director from the desire for modern city, and proceeding to militarism. In addition, I show how they revealed the ideology of imperialism and how the rupture appears in the movie. The fourth part analyzes the hybridity emerging from the collision of colony and imperialism in both works. In particular, I find that the hybridity of languages in the movies was closely related to the nation. Through the above research, I find that the two movies reflects the reality of a colony, and restores the nation by showing the hybridity through its collision against imperialism.

일본 근대불교계의 전쟁에 대한 인식 연구

이태승(Lee, Tae-seung) 불교학연구회 2013 불교학연구 Vol.36 No.-

With the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the new government adopted a strong anti-Buddhist attitude, and a movement to eradicate Buddhism and bring Shinto to ascendancy arose throughout the country due to the strong connections of Buddhism to the Shoguns. During the Edo Period of Tokugawa (1600-1868) Buddhism was supported by the state. The new Meiji government established a government bureau, the ShintōWorship Bureau(神祇事務局) to oversee religious affairs and to administer the government-ordered separation of Buddhism from Shintō. Through this process, the Meiji Restoration restored the power of the Imperial Household, which had been under the shadow of successive military governments in previous years. The haibutsu kishaku (廢佛毁釋; literally “abolish Buddhism and destroy Shākyamuni”) during the Meiji Restoration, the most famous instance of the phenomenon, was an event triggered by the official policy of separation of Shinto and Buddhism and caused great damage to Buddhism in Japan. It resulted in the destruction of Buddhist temples, images and texts, and Buddhist monks were forced return to secular life. The Buddhist traditions, however, fought hard to overcome national suppression, eventually earning equal status with Shinto by the mid-Meiji Period. Meanwhile, Japan opened its door to the world and encountered the impact of Western culture and technology, forging a modern nation. Together with a series of wars, a militaristic ideology developed in the Empire of Japan: that the military should dominate the political and social life of the nation, and that the strength of the military is equal to the strength of the nation. This militarism came to a climax in the Second World War and eventually to defeat in 1945. This article is to explore how Japanese Buddhism overcame the haibutsu kishaku and what kinds of roles it played to support Japanese militarism by focusing on the matter of war. Zen at War focuses on the history of Zen Buddhism and Japanese militarism from the time of the Meiji Restoration through the Second World War and the postwar period. It describes the influence of state policy on Japanese Buddhism, and particularly the influence of Zen philosophy on the Japanese military. Brian Daizen Victoria, an American-born Sōtō priest, draws from his own study of original Japanese documents, but also uses the publications of Ichikawa Hakugen (市川白弦, 1920-1986), a Rinzai-monk and a scholar. In The War Responsibility of Buddhists (Bukkyosha no Senso Sekinin, 1970), Hakugen himself had been “a strong advocate of Japan's ‘holy war’”. to which he later confessed, “I should not forget to include myself as one of those modern Japanese Buddhists who did these things.” Victoria's book exploded onto the Western Zen scene in 1997 and has been a subject of controversy ever since. Statements of some of Western Zen's most revered teachers and masters supported Japanese militarism and nationalism. A re-evaluation of Zen Buddhism's role in the Japanese wars of the Twentieth Century is long overdue and Victoria's book is but a first step in a long and ultimately painful process of reflection on the meaning of Zen. The book's great contribution is that it has succeeded, where others scholars have not, in bringing to public attention the largely unquestioning support of Japanese Buddhists for their nation's militarism. In response to “Zen at War” Japanese Buddhism started a campaign to receive apologies from leading parties within the Japanese Buddhist schools since 2001. This involvement was not limited to the Zen schools, as all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism confessed on supporting the militarist state. In the process, Japanese Buddhist academia demonstrated their reflection and responsibility on the matter, while Japanese scholars traditionally refused to face the existence of their social issues. It is also important for Koreans because it gives us an important opportunity to ref 메이지유신으로부터 시작되는 일본의 근대에 있어 불교는 역사상 초유의 탄압을 받는다. 곧 메이지유신 이전 도쿠카와 막부의 에도시대에 國敎의 지위를 가지고 있던 불교가 근대의 初頭부터 국가에 의한 탄압을 받게 되는 것이다. 이러한 탄압의 배경에는 권력의 중심을 천황에 두고 그 천황에 대한 이론적 근거 를 제공하는 神道에 국교적 지위를 부여하고자 하는 메이지정부의 방침이 있었던 것이지만, 국가에 의한 불교탄압은 역사상 초유의 일로서 불교계는 큰 난관에 봉착하게 된다. 이러한 불교탄압이 發佛毁釋이라 불리어 진행되지만 불교계 또한 그러한 난관을 극복하고자 많은 노력을 기울였다. 그러한 노력의 대표적인 모습이 폐불훼석 초기 결성된 諸宗同德會盟의 모임이며, 그와 같은 불교계의 노력이 결실을 거두어 메이지 중기이후에 불교계는 신도와 동등한 종교적 지위를 갖게 된다. 이렇게 불교계는 메이지유신 이후 국가적 탄압을 극복하는 과정을 갖게 되는 반면, 일본 국가는 근대초기의 서구문물의 유입을 통한 체제정비 이후 천황중심의 강력한 국가체제를 가지게 된다. 그리고 그러한 국가적 체제는 근대 중기이후의 일련의 전쟁을 통해 군국주의의 형태를 띄게 되고, 그러한 군국주의 체제는 태평양전쟁까지 이어져 결국 1945년 패전으로 막을 내리게 된다. 본고는 근대 폐불훼석을 극복한 불교계가 이러한 군국주의 일본의 사회체제와 어떻게 관계하고 어떤 역할을 하였는가를 살펴본 것으로 특히 전쟁과 관련된 불교계의 입장을 살펴본 것이다. 이러한 고찰을 위해 近年 근대 일본불교계와 전쟁의 관계를 다루어 전세계적으로 화제를 모은 브라이언 빅토리아의 『선과 전쟁(Zen At War)』을 근거로 그 구체적인 내용을 살펴보았고, 아울러 빅토리아에게 큰 영향을 끼쳤던 이치카와 하쿠겐(市川白弦, 1902-1986) 에 대해 살펴보았다, 빅토리아는 미국인으로 일본에 와 曹洞宗의 禪僧으로서 수행을 하는 일면 불교와 전쟁에 대해 오랫동안 고뇌와 사색을 바탕으로 그 자료를 모아 이와 같은 저서를 공간하였지만, 그러한 문제의식을 갖게 된 데에는 이치카와 하쿠겐의 영향이 컸다고 밝히고 있다. 이치카와는 臨濟宗의 승려로서 전후 불교계의 전쟁에 대한 책임과 반성을 촉구한 『佛敎者의 戰爭責任』(春秋社, 1970)을 출간한 불교계의 양심적인 인물로 간주되지만, 실제 그의 저술들이 주목을 받게 된 것은 빅토리아의 『선과 전쟁』이 출간된 이후의 일이라 할 수 있다. 또한 이치카와를 비롯한 불교계의 전쟁책임 규명을 위한 노력에 의거해 일본의 불교계는 終戰이후 거의 40여년이 지난 시점에서 전쟁에 대한 반성을 교단별로 밝혔지만, 빅토리아의 저술이 일본어 번역판으로 출간된 2001년 이후 보다 많은 불교교단이 전쟁에 대한 반성을 표명하였고 더불어 일본의 불교학계에서도 전쟁과 사회의 책임에 대해 학술적인 검토가 이루어지고 있다. 특히 그간 사회적인 문제에 직접적인 언급을 자제하던 불교학계의 자세에 대해서도 반성과 책임을 촉구하는 입장이 나타나고 있다. 그리고 이와 같은 일본불교학계의 전쟁책임이나 사회윤리에 대한 학술적인 조명은 단순히 일본불교계의 문제가 아니라 일본에 의해 식민지를 경험한 우리에게도 중요한 현실인식을 가져다주는 계기가 되고 있다. 그것은 단순히 불교계의 윤리의식을 넘어 우리사회의 역사적, 정치적 의식과도 관련되는 폭넓고 중요한 문제제기로, 여전히 불편하게 지속되는 한일관계에 새로운 사회인식과 도덕의식을 제기하는 중요한 계기가 되기 때문이다.

영화 <호타루>의 은폐된 군국주의

신승한 경기대학교 인문학연구소 2024 시민인문학 Vol.46 No.-

Hotaru is a rare film about Korean kamikaze commandos during World War II. In this paper, I will argue that the film can be interpreted as nostalgia and desire for militarism as well as a critique of Japanese militarism. First, I will point out that the memories of the kamikaze commandos in Hotaru are transformed into sentimentalism through nostalgia. Next, I will highlight how one of the characters, Fujieda, embodies militarism. I will argue that his death is a belated attempt to fulfill the unfinished business of his past as a kamikaze soldier, an anachronistic act that brings the commandos back to the present. Finally, I will examine the Yamaoka couple's attempt to discourage historical reflection by presenting themselves as scapegoats. Through these discussions, I will show that Hotaru fails to truly reflect on history.

환대(Hospitality)와 적대(Hostility) 사이

정호윤(Hoyoon Jung) 한국정치사회연구소 2023 한국과 국제사회 Vol.7 No.1

하와이는 깨끗한 휴양지와 현대적 경관이 어우러진 세계적인 관광지로써 많은 여행객들의 발걸음을 이끌어왔다. 이뿐 아니라 19세기 중반 이후 사탕수수 산업의 호황으로 가속화되어온 세계 여러 지역으로부터의 하와이로의 노동이주 물결은 동서문명 조우의 공간이자 다문화주의의 중심지로서의 발전을 추동케 했다. 이처럼 하와이는 주민들의 상대에 대한 포용과 이해를 바탕으로 한 환대정신과 하와이 관광 산업의 중심축을 구성하는 환대산업과 더불어 하와이 특유의 문화다양성이 잘 어우러져 세계적인 환대도시로서의 입지를 공고히 해 왔다. 본 연구는 이러한 하와이의 관광·다문화를 중심으로 한 환대성의 이면에 교묘한 군사주의와 식민주의로 대변되는 적대성이 존재한다는 사실을 비판적으로 성찰하였다. 미국은 1893년 하와이를 점령하였으며, 1941년 진주만 피습 이후 이 사건을 하와이 역사의 중추적 내러티브로 재구성하며 진주만, 특히 USS Arizona 기념관이 하와이의 주력 관광상품으로 발돋움하게 되었다. 이를 통해 그 이면에 은폐된 미국의 군사주의와 원주민의 주권 상실의 역사를 교묘하게 감추어왔다. 또한 본 연구는 하와이를 표상하는 다문화주의의 배경을 환태평양 지역의 제국주의와 식민주의적 맥락에서 고찰하였다. 하와이 왕국을 전복시킨 미국 본토에서 넘어온 백인들은 하와이 사탕수수 산업을 장악하였고, 이에 따라 값싼 아시아계 노동이민자들의 원활한 정착을 위해 다문화주의를 의도적으로 전파한 정착형 식민주의를 주목할 필요가 있다. Hawaii has attracted many tourists from around the world as a world-class tourist destination with clean resorts and modern landscapes. In addition, the wave of labor migration to Hawaii from various parts of the world has driven the development as a space a center of multiculturalism. As such, Hawaii has strengthened its position as a global hospitality city with its unique cultural diversity, along with the hospitality industry. This study critically reflected on the fact that there is hostility represented by subtle militarism and colonialism behind the hospitality centered on Hawaii's tourism and multiculturalism. The U.S. occupied Hawaii in 1893, and after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the event was reconstructed as a pivotal narrative in Hawaii's history, making Pearl Harbor a major tourist attraction in Hawaii. Through this, the history of American militarism and the loss of sovereignty of indigenous people behind it has been skillfully hidden. In addition, this study examined the background of multiculturalism representing Hawaii in the context of imperialism and colonialism. This study argues the settler colonialism that intentionally spread multi- culturalism for the smooth settlement of cheap Asian laborers.