보어의 범위 확대에 대한 비판적 고찰

송창선(Song, C hang- seon) 국어교육학회 2020 국어교육연구 Vol.- No.74

최근에 국어학계에서 ‘아니다, 되다, 이다’ 외에도 ‘NP1이/가 NP2이/가 VP’ 구성에서 NP2가 보어라는 주장이 제기되었다. 이 연구에서는 기존 연구에서 보어로 다룬 대표적인 구문을 대상으로 하여, 이들을 보어로 다루는 것이 합리적인지 아닌지를 면밀하게 검토하였다. 먼저 소유/소재 구문에서는 처격의 논항이 나타나는 특성이 있음에 주목하여 두번째 논항은 보어가 아니라 주어이고, 첫 번째 논항은 부사어가 주제로 쓰인 것임을 밝혔다. 다음으로 준계사 구문의 대표적인 유형인 ‘NP1이/가 NP2이/가 맞다/틀림없다/분명하다’를 살펴보았는데, 이들 서술어는 모두 한 자리 서술어이며, 두 개의 명사구가 한 단위로 묶이는 구조를 지니기 때문에 N P2는 보어가 아니라고 주장하였다. 아울러 심리 형용사 구문에서는 첫 번째 명사구와 두 번째 명사구의 순서를 바꿀 때와 관형절을 만드는 데 있어서 큰 차이를 보이는데, 두 번째 명사구가 주어이며, 첫 번째 명사구는 부사어이던 것이 주제로 나타난 것으로 설명하였다. 끝으로 수량사 구문에서는, 수량사구가 필수적인 요소가 아닐 뿐만 아니라, 수량사구 대신에 부사어가 자연스럽게 쓰이는 점으로 볼 때 수량사구는 보어가 아니라고 하였다. 이처럼 최근에 ‘아니다, 되다, 이다’ 외에 보어 구문으로 주장해 온 ‘NP1이/가 NP2이/가 VP’ 구성을 유형별로 나누어서 면밀하게 검토한 결과, 이들 구문에서 NP2를 보어로 다룰 만한 근거가 없음을 알 수 있었다. The purpose of this study is to examine critically some problems about the extending the range of the complement in Korean. Recently not a few Korean linguists presented the arguments that NP2-i/ka is the complement in the construction ‘NP1-i/ka NP2-i/ka VP’. Therefore I examine the nature of NP2-i/ka in the construction ‘NP1-i/ka NP2-i/ka VP’. Firstly, I reveal that the nature of NP2-i/ka in the possession construction is not the complement but the adverb. Secondly, the nature of NP2-i/ka in the semi-copula construction is not the complement because the verb of this construction requires only the subject. Thirdly, I examine NP2-i/ka in the psychological adjective construction, and confirm that the nature of NP2- i/ka is not the complement but the adverb. Lastly, I establish that the quantifier is not the complement in that the quantifier is not an essential element and can be replaced by the adverb.

조사 ‘이/가’와 ‘은/는’의 기본 전제와 기능 분석

김미형(Kim, Mihyoung) 담화·인지언어학회 2011 담화와 인지 Vol.18 No.3

In this paper, the characteristics of differences between the postpositional particles used in place of a subject, i/ka and eun/neun, are discussed. Although i/ka has been traditionally categorized as a subjective postposition, there have been many researches about the identity of this postpositional particle, since subjective case is expressed without such particle, and eun/neun is also sometimes used. Eun/neun is known to represent a topic or the contrast when used in the place of subject. However, many preceding researches could not clearly explain the function of the two postpositions. In this research, the fact that each of the two postpositions possess different premise is explained. i/ka, in which a predicate is fixed in speaker’s cognition, selects a sister of a subject. On the other hand, eun/neun, in which a subject is fixed in speaker’s cognition, selects s sister of a predicate. Such basic premise is a main factor that enables i/ka to function as a subjective postposition and eun/neun to express the topic. In addition, because of such premise, i/ka intentionally means ‘selective designation’, and eun/neun contrast conditional on the flow of sentence. In the case of subjective clause, i/ka is used when a predicate is fixed, and eun/neun is used when a subject is fixed. Hence, when a postposition i/ka is used in the place of subject, the status of a given subject depends on a predicate. For eun/neun, the status of a given predicate depends on a subject.

일본어 모어화자의 한국어 주격조사 습득

박선희,이희경 연세대학교 언어정보연구원 2019 언어사실과 관점 Vol.48 No.-

This study aims to investigate the L2 use of Korean subject marker ‘i/ka’ by Japanese L1 speakers. The Korean subject marker ‘i/ka’ has obligatory occurrence contexts and non-occurrence contexts. Japanese corresponding subject marker ‘ga’ also has similar contexts as Korean. The ‘i/ka’ marking requires interface between morphosyntactic and discourse-pragmatic level. The study consists of 60 L1 Japanese learners of Koreans(32 Advanced learners and 28 Intermediate learners) and 29 Korean native speakers. A total of 27 multiple choice tasks, 15 ‘i/ka’ occurrence items and 12 ‘i/ka’ non-occurrence items with discourse context was provided in the experiment. The contexts of ‘i/ka’ occurrence were designed to provide ‘exclusive focus’, ‘selecting focus’, ‘replacing focus’, ‘rhetorical question’, and ‘confirmation question’ according to the unpredictability level of the subject. The contexts of ‘i/ka’ non-occurrence were ‘referring previously mentioned item’, ‘1st person subject’, ‘referring an on-site item’, and ‘sentential focus’, which presents a high predictability of the subject. The results revealed the difference between the Japanese speakers and Korean native speakers in most of the occurrence and non-occurrence contexts although they had similar linguistic phenomenon in their L1. This implicates that L2 learners had difficulty in incorporating discourse-pragmatic information for morphosyntactic case marking.

‘은/는’과 ‘이/가’의 의미 지도와 구문 관계 -정보 구조와 자향성의 상호작용을 바탕으로-

정해권 국어학회 2022 국어학 Vol.- No.104

Information structure is a pragmatic-morphological category that reflects the speaker's assumption of the listener's information state, and egophoricity is a grammatical category that represents privileged access of the primary knower that is the speaker of statements and the listener of questions as the egophoric context. Two categories are independent, however, because of the deictic and pragmatic characteristics of these categories, there are interactions between them in a clause. In previous studies, un/nun and i/ka of Korean are discussed each as a topic marker and a focus marker in the view of information structure. Specifically, un/nun could be used to represent a (non-contrastive and ratified) topic, a contrastive topic, an unratified topic, or a contrastive information focus. And i/ka could indicate an information focus, a contrastive focus, an unratified topic, or a unfocused topic in the information structure of a clause. On the other hand, un/nun co-occurred with grammaticalized egophoric markers in the egophoric context where the subject is the first- person speaker in a statement such as na- nun chupta .('I am cold.'), and i/ka distributed in the unegophoric context with second or third-person subjects such as nalssi- ka chupta .('The weather is cold.') And un/nun represents an unratified topic in an egophoric context, and i/ka indicates an unratified topic in an unegophoric context. So this study suggests that the basic meaning of un/nun is an egophoric topic marker, and i/ka is an unegophoric topic marker in the subject position with non-contrastive and unfocused meanings.

<法華玄賛>のチベット語訳の特徴

모치즈키 카이에 금강대학교 불교문화연구소 2015 불교학 리뷰 Vol.17 No.-

In the commentaries on the scriptures (mDo ’grel) in the Tibetan Tangyur, we can find two works that were translated from Chinese into Tibetan: the ’Phags pa dGongs pa zab mo nges par ’grel pa’i mdo rgya cher ’grel pa of Wen tshegs and the Dam pa’i chos puṇḍa rī ka’i ’grel pa of Sa’i rtsa lag. The former is a commentary on the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra of Woncheuk (圓測) (613-696), who came from Korea, and the latter is a commentary on the Lotus Sutra of Kuei-Chi (基) (632-682). Though both of them belong to the Chinese Fa-hsiang School (法相宗), their views on the teaching of mind-only are different, and the former is said to be criticized by successors of the latter. In this paper, I take up the latter to consider some problems in this Tibetan translation of a Chinese text. The Dam pa’i chos puṇḍa rī ka’i ’grel pa is said to be an abridged translation of the Miao-fa-lian-hua-jing Xuan-zan (妙法蓮華経玄賛) and comes to an abrupt end in the eleventh Chapter. Comparing this Tibetan translation with its Chinese text, we can find the reasons it became a shorter version of the Chinese original: (1) the differences in chapters between the Chinese translation of the Lotus Sutra and its Tibetan translation; for example, the lack of the chapter on Devadatta in the Tibetan translation or the position of the chapter on Transmission; (2) differences in the passages of the Tibetan translation of the Lotus Sutra from its Chinese translation; for example, numbers of verses or added verses in the Chinese translation; (3) Buddhist texts unknown in Tibet, namely the Ta-chih-tu-lun (大智度論), the Shih-erh-men-lun (十二 門論), the Shih-chu-p’i-p’o-sha-lun (十住毘婆沙論), etc.; (4) etymological explanations in the Chinese; for example, the title of the scripture; and (5) information known only in the Chinese tradition; for example, the differences between two Chinese translations, transmission of the scripture to China, or non-Buddhist works written in China. The Tibetan translator consulted the Tibetan translation of the Lotus Sutra by Surendrabodhi and Ye shes sde, not the Chinese translation by Kumālajīva that Kuei-Chi depends on, when he translated citations of the scripture. This obviously led to the above-mentioned factors. Therefore, he obviously acknowledged the differences between the two translations, and revised the citations from the scripture in consultation with its Tibetan translation. Thus, it seems that the abridgements occurred when he could not solve the problems stemming from these differences. 티벳 대장경 텐규르의 「경소부經疏部」에는 한문에서 티벳어로 번역된 텍스트로서, 원측(613~696)에 의한 <해심밀경소解深密經疏>와 기基(632~ 682)에 의한 <묘법연화주妙法蓮華註>가 수록되어 있다. 전자는 신라 출신의 법상종 학승에 의한 <해심밀경>의 해설서로, 같은 법상종인 후자 자은학파와는 견해의 차이가 있었다고도 전해진다. 본고에서는 후자 <묘법연화주>를한문 텍스트인 <묘법연화경현찬妙法蓮華經玄贊>과 대비하여 해독한 결과에 대해서 약간의 고찰을 시도해 보았다. <묘법연화주>는 한문 텍스트인 <묘법연화경현찬>과 내용이 완전히 일치하는 것이 아니라, 「견보탑품」의 도중에서 갑자기 끝나고 있으며, 번역도 초역으로 간주된다. 그러나 그 내용을 검토해 보면, 번역이 생략된 곳에는 생략될 만한 이유가 있었음을 알 수 있다. 그 원인을 정리하면, (1)<법화경>의 한역과 장역藏譯의 장章의 차이(「제바품」 「촉루품」 등), (2)의거하는 <법화경> 한역과 장역의 차이(게송의 수, 결락 등), (3)티벳에 전해지지 않은 문헌(<대지도론> <십이문론> <십주비바사론> 등), (4)한어에 의한 어휘 해석, (5)중국의 독자적인 정보(<법화경>의 전파, 비불교문헌) 등이다. 티벳어 역자는 <법화경>에 관해서는 한문에 인용되는 구마라집역 <묘법연화경>에 의거하지 않고, 같은 경의 티벳어역에 의거하고 있다. 위의 원인들중 몇 가지는 그로부터 파생한 것이다. 또한 인용경론에 관해서는 확인되지않은 것 뿐 아니라 확인할 수 있는 것에 대해서도 번역을 생략하는 경향이 있다. 이는 확인되지 않은 전적의 존재가 원인이 되어 전거의 확인을 피하게 되면서, 인용경론의 번역이 생략되었을 가능성도 있다. 이와 같은 이유로 티벳어역은 한문의 원본보다도 훨씬 짧은 텍스트가 된 것이다. 또한 티벳어 역자는 <법화경>의 한역과 티벳어역의 차이를 인식하고 있었고, 그래서 한문을 직접 번역하지 않고 <법화경>의 티벳어역을 보면서 번역하고 있음도 확인할 수 있다. 그리하여 한문의 문제점을 경전의 티벳어역에 의거하여 수정하고 있다는 것도 확인된다. 그러는 가운데 수정할 수 없는 점이상기의 문제점으로 발생하게 된 것이다.

On the Meaning of Korean -i/ka

( Il Kyu Kim ) 한국외국어대학교 언어연구소 2014 언어와 언어학 Vol.0 No.63

The meaning of -i/ka in Korean, though studied by a number of researchers, remains unclear. Two influencing previous views are to see it as a focus marker and to take it to indicate alternatives to the referent of an - i/ka-marked element. The purpose of this paper is to shed light on the meaning of the particle by pointing out shortcomings of the previous analyses and investigate its (in)felicity of in various contexts. Noticing that -i/ka is used to specifically point at the meaning of a phrase to which it is attached, I argue that the meaning of -i/ka is unique specification of the denotation of a phrase to which it is attached. The proposed meaning is also understood within the formal framework of multiple dimensions of meaning recently proposed by Gutzmann (2013) and characterized as a mixed functional use-conditional item.

Protection by Methanol Extract of Longan (Dimocarpus Longan Lour.) Peel against Kainic acid-Induced Seizure

Young-Jun Jo,은재순,김형춘,Hwang-Eui Cho,이미경,황방연,홍진태,문동철,오기완 한국생약학회 2010 Natural Product Sciences Vol.16 No.2

This experiment was undertaken to investigate whether methanol extract of fruit peel of Dimocarpus longan Lour. (MEFL) protects against kainic acid (KA)-induced seizure. Oral administration of MEFL (1, 2 and 4 mg/kg) increased KA (50 mg/kg)-induced survival rate and latency of convulsion onset, and deceased seizure scores and weight loss induced by intraperitoneal (i.p) injection of KA in mice. In addition, MEFL protected against cell death in the hippocampus of rat brain after KA-administration as analyzed by using TUNEL assay in rats. MEFL also significantly blocked seizure-form of electroencephalogram (EEG) power spectra induced by KA in rats. MEFL also inhibited elevation of [Ca2+]i and increased [Cl-]i induced by KA in cultured neuronal cells. Therefore, it is suggested that MEFL protects against seizure induced by KA, decreasing [Ca2+]i. Keywords - Dimocarpus longan, Kainic acid (KA), Seizure; Hippocampus, Cell death, [Ca2+]i.

한국어 구어 교육을 위한 조사 ‘이/가’의 실현 및 비실현에 관한 연구

오선영 한국어의미학회 2018 한국어 의미학 Vol.61 No.-

The objective of this research is to propose a new method of marker education through the use of spoken languages by analyzing the occurrence and non-occurrence of the markers i/ka in learner error corpus and spoken language corpus. Maintaining the position that Korean language education for foreigners requires spoken language education, this research focuses on the aspects that are realized in spoken language education and their related problems. This research emphasizes that a clear differentiation is required in phenomena where markers do not appear, and that education on markers must be conducted on these grounds. The phenomena in which markers fail to appear include ‘those that do not need markers(ellipsis),’ ‘markers that have been left out(omission),’ and ‘those that have different meanings depending on whether markers are inserted or deleted(occurrence and non-occurrence). This research first reviews what errors learners of the Korean language make regarding i/ka through methods of learner error corpus, and identifies complementary measures to aid learners studying markers in the Korean language. In addition, this research analyzes the Korean spoken language corpus and identifies how native speakers of the Korean language use i/ka. It identifies situations where the markers are used in normal everyday life, the form of use and the meanings they portray. This research focuses primarily on: the occurrence and non-occurrence of the markers i/ka and identifies if this has significant meaning; the methods on how to provide spoken language education of the meaning and function of i/ka; and proposing a direction for marker education that reflects the nature of the Korean spoken language.

중국인 학습자의 한국어 조사 `이/가`와 `은/는`의 습득 연구

오아림 ( Ahrim Oh ),박선희 ( Sun Hee Park ) 연세대학교 언어정보연구원(구 연세대학교 언어정보개발원) 2016 언어사실과 관점 Vol.39 No.-

The study has investigated Chinese learners` acquisition of Korean particle i/ka and eun/nun which had different meanings depending on linguistic contexts. Meanings of i/ka include exclusiveness, information focus, specificity, selectional listing. eun/nun has meanings of topic and contrast; topic was sub-categorized into aboutness, genericity, givenness, and contrast into two types depending on the explicitness of counterparts. Participants of the study were 25 native speakers of Korean(NKs) and 40 Chinese learners of Korean(CKs), and CKs were divided into two groups of high CKs and low CKs according to their proficiency. They were asked to select a Korean particle appropriate to a given sentence among 4 choices. ANOVA on the scores of i/ka and eun/nun has been conducted to examine whether there existed significant differences among three groups in different linguistic contexts. The result showed that there were significant differences among scores of three groups. The results of additional analyses are as follows: (1) In four meanings of i/ka, which were included in the study, there were no significant differences between scores of NKs and high CKs. Scores of low CKs were significantly different from those of NKs and high CKs. (2) In three meanings of eun/nun, genericity, givenness and contrast, scores of low CKs and high CKs were significantly different from those of NKs, but there were no significant difference between two subgroups of CKs. However, in eun/nun which has meaning of `aboutness`, there was no significant difference between scores of NKs and high CKs, while scores of low CKs were significantly different from the others.

일본인 학습자와 중국인 학습자의 ‘은/는’과 ‘이/가’ 인식 연구

오아림 ( Oh Ahrim ) 국어교육학회 2021 國語敎育學硏究 Vol.56 No.3

본 연구는 일본인과 중국인 한국어 학습자의 ‘은/는’과 ‘이/가’의 인식을 살펴보았다. ‘은/는’과 ‘이/가’의 적절성은 언어적 맥락에 따라 달라진다. ‘은/는’이 실현되는 언어적 맥락은 총칭성, 구정보, 대조가 있으며, ‘이/가’의 실현 맥락은 정보적 초점, 선택적 초점, 수정적 초점, 배타성, 특정성, 확인의문문, 수사의문문, 비한정적 주어가 있다. 일본인 학습자와 중국인 학습자, 한국어 모어 화자 각각 30명이 연구에 참여하였다. 연구 도구로는 리커트 척도법이 사용되었으며, 일원분산분석(ANOVA)을 통해 수용성 점수 차이를 통계적으로 검정하였다. 중국인 학습자들은 ‘은/는’과 ‘이/가’의 모든 실현 맥락에서 한국어 모어 화자와 유의한 차이를 보인 반면, 일본인 학습자들은 총칭성, 수정적 초점, 수사의문문, 비한정적 주어 맥락에서 한국어 모어 화자와 유의한 차이를 보였다. 본 연구의 결과는 학습자의 모어와 목표 언어 사이의 형태론적 유사성(morphological congruency)이 제2언어 습득에 영향을 미치는 중요한 변인이 됨을 시사한다. This study has investigated the acquisition of eun/neun and i/ka by Japanese and Chinese learners. The appropriateness of eun/neun and i/ka depends on linguistic contexts, such as particular sentence components in the sentence and prior utterance. Linguistic contexts in which eun/neun is used are genericity, givenness, and contrast. i/ka occurs in contexts such as informational focus, selecting focus, replacing focus, exclusiveness, specificity, confirmation question, rhetoric question and indefinite subject noun. Altogether, 30 L1 Japanese learners of Korean(JKs), 30 L1 Chinese learners of Korean(CKs) and 30 native speakers of Korean(NKs) participated in the study. A Likert-scale was used to review participants’ perceptions and an ANOVA was used for statistical analysis of the results. The results showed that CKs were significantly different from NKs in all of the contexts, while there were significant differences between JKs and NKs in four contexts: genericity, replacing focus, rhetorical question and indefinite subject noun. This indicates that morphological congruency of native language of the learners and target language is one variable that significantly influences second language acquisition.