이제마의 인간론 - 衆人의 유형론을 중심으로 -

배영순 영남대학교 민족문화연구소 2012 민족문화논총 Vol.50 No.-

Lee Je-ma has been known as the founder of Sasngeuihak (traditional Korean medicine with patients classified into four types); however, he proposed a remarkable analysis of a theory on humans in 『Gyeokchigo (格致藁)』. This paper focuses on his theory on humans for the following two reasons. First, no other study has been as elaborate and insightful as the theory on humans of Lee Je-ma. Lee Je-ma classified the selfish and self-centered group of humans into four types, and added a sharp argumentation and analysis regarding each type. The public is a crowd of humans that falls into greed and foolishness while losing human reason, and it is divided into the following four types: mean humans in pursuit of power, cunning humans in pursuit of honor, greedy humans in pursuit of property, and cowardly humans in pursuit of higher positions. Such a theory on humans by Lee Je-ma may be undoubtedly noteworthy research at a level of providing an understanding of humans. Second, it is impossible to discuss Sasngeuihak without mentioning the theory on humans of Lee Je-ma. Although Sasngeuihak was understood as medicine according to physical constitution, this is only a partial understanding. Lee Je-ma said that he prescribed differently according to the type of physical constitution; however, he did not say that physical constitution is attributable to a certain disease. His view was that humans lose their heart (reason) owing to greed, which leads to a sick life and eventually causes the body to become sick. Not only did he see physical diseases, but also he saw through the diseases of life (the disease of lifestyle) that caused physical diseases. This is a point that is beyond the imagination of western medicine. Lee Je-ma put forth every effort in analyzing human greed and evil deeds but not because of despair toward humans and the world. Rather it was because of his deep faith in humanity and strong will toward good. In this regard, it is necessary to highlight again his sasang (four types) philosophy and Sasngeuihak while focusing again on his theory of humans. 東武 李濟馬의 『格致藁』는 「儒略」 「反誠箴」 「獨行篇」 3편으로 구성되어 있다. 그런데 「독행편」은 이제마의 인간론이라고 할 수 있는 바, 그는 여기에서 衆人을 鄙人, 薄人, 貪人, 懦人의 네 유형으로 설정하고 거의 전권에 걸쳐서 이를 상론하고 있다. 그러나 지금까지 동무의 인간론에 주목한 연구는 없었다. 기존의 연구들은 동무의 경학사상과 도덕론의 차원에서 「독행편」을 파악하고자 했다. 본고가 「독행편」의 인간론에 주목하는 이유는 두 가지다. 첫째, 동서 고전의 자료들에서도 그리고 근대 인문학에서도 이제마의 인간론만큼 통찰척이고 정치한 분석이 제기되는 자료를 보기 어렵다. 우리가 흔히 衆人 또는 凡人, 또는 衆生이라는 개념을 쓰고 인간의 탐욕과 어리석음에 대해서 논급하지만, 그것은 대체로 추상수준의 일반론에 머물고 이것을 유형화하면서 인간의 바닥을 파헤치는 심층 분석을 제기하고 있는 자료를 찾아보기 어렵다. 그 점에서 동무의 인간론은 인간에 대한 이해라는 차원에서도 대단히 중요한 의의를 지니고 있다. 둘째, 이제마의 인간론을 떠나서 四象醫學을 논할 수 없다. 통상 이제마의 사상의학을 체질의학으로 이해하지만 그것은 반쪽의 이해일 뿐이다. 체질론은 장부의 대소에 따라서 태양, 태음, 소양, 소음의 네 유형으로 나누고 그 유형에 따라 처방을 달리한다는 것이지만 체질론은 정작 인간이 왜 병들어 가는지 그 원인에 대해서 대답하지 못한다. 동무는 체질에 따라 신체와 기질적 약점이 다르고 그래서 체질에 따라 처방을 달리한다고 이야기했지 체질 때문에 병이 든다고 말하지 않았다. 동무의 사상의학은 인간론에 기초한 것이었다. 동무는 인간이 탐욕 때문에 본심을 잃고 그래서 삶이 병들어가고 끝내 육신이 병들어가는 것으로 보았다. 그래서 정말 병을 근본적으로 고치려면, 사단지심을 회복하고 성명합일의 건강한 삶으로 돌아가야 할 것을 말하고 있다. 그가 말하고자 했던 壽世의 保元 - 세상살이의 지침도 그것이었다. 동무는 사단지심으로부터 일탈한 네 가지 인간유형으로서 鄙人, 懦人, 薄人, 貪人을 말하고 있다. 사람의 욕심에 같지 않음이 있기 때문에 이를 네 가지로 나눌 수 있다는 것이다. 이점에 대하여 『東醫壽世保元』에서는 그 개념만 등장하고 있지만 「독행편」에서는 정치한 분석이 가해지고 있는 바, 이는 고전유학의 도덕론이나 수행론 차원에서 검토될 것이 아니라, 인문학적 인간론 차원에서 그리고 사상의학의 의학적 전제로서 재검토될 필요가 있다. 이것이 본고의 문제의식이다.

한낙원 과학소설에 나타난 휴먼과 비–휴먼의 상상력 -1960년대 『우주벌레 오메가호』를 중심으로-

장수경 한국아동청소년문학학회 2023 아동청소년문학연구 Vol.- No.33

The purpose of this study is to examine the imagination of the relationship between humans and non–humans in Han Nak–won’s science fiction novel, “The Space Bug Omega”(1967.6–1969.2), which was serialized in the magazine Hakwon. Through this, this study was able to confirm Three facts. First, this work shows an open perception in that it recognizes aliens as a new species that exists beyond humans. Furthermore, this text is meaningful in that it leads us to think about the relationship between humans and non–humans based on transverality, breaking away from the outdated human–centered thinking habits. Second, this work reveals the limitations of crossing the boundary to be recognized as a new species in that it recognizes robots as tools. Meanwhile, the malfunction of the robot at the end allows us to ask how far the identity of posthuman should be expanded by recreating the conflict between humans and non–humans. Third, this work shows that humans can preserve their species even at the moment of the end of the earth through science and technology and belief in humans. At the same time, it can be said to be a narrative that asks questions about the limitations of modern thinking within the signs of posthumanism through the voice of Jupiter. As such, “The Space Bug Omega” is a narrative that asks to change the framework of modern thinking about humans and non–humans and reconsider the possibility of expanding into new relationships.

구전서사에 형상화된 비인간의 행위성에 관한 탐색 - 벌목저항전승의 포스트휴머니즘적 해석을 중심으로

박광은 한국구비문학회 2022 口碑文學硏究 Vol.- No.66

This study analyzes the non-human agency represented in oral-narratives. Based on posthumanism, this study focuses on the type “Trees against Logging”, which represents the most hostile case of a relationship between non-humans and humans. In “Trees against Logging”, trees “resist” the logging by humans. Particularly in the “Trees against Logging” documented in the premodern era, the trees are represented as anthropomorphic figures, which have agency and will. Here, the possibility of reinterpreting the curse[殃禍] that the trees put on the logging human as an act of “resistance” is suggested. On the other hand, in those investigated in the modern era, the trees’ agency is represented negatively, or the agency itself is denied. This is because the modern worldview, based on Western thoughts, conceals and dismantles the network between non-humans and humans, all “persons”. Here, the trees’ perspective, intention, and agency are also concealed. Therefore, the curse is not represented as a “resistance” by the trees, but as a thing of incomprehensible fear to be suppressed. However, since the relationships between all “persons” constitute the world, “hybrids” of non-human agency in the modern world can inevitably be imagined. “Hybrids” are not just in the “informal” area but also the “official” area of the state, exhibiting the agency. “Hybrids” overpass and disturb the division line between the premodern and modern, non-humans and humans. Posthumanism attempts to reveal the form of the world connected and intertwined with relationships between all “persons” and the non-human agency that emerges from such relationships. Considering posthumanism, it is necessary to discover non-humans who act like humans, that is, anthropomorphic non-humans represented in oral-narratives.

근대 과학의 산물, 인조인간: 1945년 이전 여성 인조인간이 등장하는 일본 작품을 중심으로

이현희 한양대학교(ERICA캠퍼스) 일본학국제비교연구소 2024 비교일본학 Vol.60 No.-

1920년 『R.U.R』이 일본에 소개된 이후로, 인조인간을 소재로 한 작품들이 많이 창작되었다. 처음에는 인조인간이 인간을 위한 노동의 대체재였으나, 점차 인조인간 자체의 존재에 대한 의문으로 발전하게 된다. 그리고 1930년대 중반부터 전쟁에서 싸우는 인간 병사의 대체재로 인조인간을 인식하게 되었다. 이때 등장한 여성 인조인간은 자아실현을 중시했던 모던 걸 스타일, 자신의 직업으로 꿈을 이루려는 신여성을 차용했다. 그러나 창작자의 명령에 복종하지 않는 여성 인조인간은 기계가 고장이 나면 폐기되는 것처럼 파괴되고 버려진다. 이 여성 인조인간은 내면에 순종하고 의존하는 일본의 ‘현모양처의 이미지를 가졌고, 겉으로는 모던 걸처럼 자기주도적인 신여성 스타일을 가지고 있었다. 당시 남성들이 여성에 대해 가졌던 갈망과 욕망, 두려움이 결합되어 만들어진 상상의 산물이라고 할 수 있겠다. 인간이 인간을 창조하는 ‘인조인간’의 모티브는 고대 신화에서부터 현대에 이르기까지 소설, 영화, 애니메이션 등 다양한 형태로 사랑받아 왔다. 인조인간은 명령에 따라 기능과 역할만 수행하면 되기 때문에, 인조인간에게 성별을 부여할 필요가 없다. 그러나 인조인간에 여성이라는 성별이 부여되는 순간 사람들은 이들을 여성으로 인식하게 되고, 인간사회에서의 성별 역할은 인조인간에게 이전된다. 여성 인조인간에 반영된 남성의 욕망은 현대 일본뿐만 아니라 전 세계의 많은 작품에서 볼 수 있다. 기계와 로봇에게 성적 영역과 역할이 주어지는 순간 인간 사회의 욕망은 반복되고 재현된다. 인공 지능과 첨단 로봇 기술이 보편적으로 사용되는 요즘, 로봇 젠더 문제는 보다 다양한 관점에서 논의될 필요가 있다. Since 『R.U.R』 was introduced in Japan in 1920, many works based on artificial humans have been created. At first, the artificial human was a substitute for human labor, but gradually it developed into a question about the existence of the artificial human itself. And since the mid–1930s, artificial humans have been recognized as substitutes for human soldiers fighting in war. The female artificial humans that appeared at this time borrowed the modern girl style that emphasized self–realization, new women who tried to achieve their dreams with their own jobs. However, female artificial humans who do not obey the creator's orders are destroyed and discarded as if machines are discarded when they break down. These female artificial humans had the image of Japan's “wise mother and good wife” who was obedient and dependent on the inside, and self–directed new woman style like a modern girl on the outside. It can be said that it is an imaginary product created by combining the longing, desire, and fear that men had for women at the time. The motif of ‘artificial human’ in which humans create humans, has been loved in various forms such as novels, paintings, movies, animations from ancient myths to modern times. There is no need to assign a gender to a synthetic human as the artificial humans only need to perform their function and role according to the commands. However, as soon as the gender of female is given to the android, people recognize them as female, and the gender role in human society will be transferred to the artificial human. Men's desires reflected in female androids can be seen not only in modern Japan but also in many works around the world. The moment sexual domains and roles are given to machines and robots, the desires of human society will be repeated and reproduced. These days, when artificial intelligence and advanced robot technology are commonly used, the issue of robot gender needs to be discussed from more diverse perspectives.

Study of Modern Human Evolution via Comparative Analysis with the Neanderthal Genome

Ahmed, Musaddeque,Liang, Ping Korea Genome Organization 2013 Genomics & informatics Vol.11 No.4

Many other human species appeared in evolution in the last 6 million years that have not been able to survive to modern times and are broadly known as archaic humans, as opposed to the extant modern humans. It has always been considered fascinating to compare the modern human genome with that of archaic humans to identify modern human-specific sequence variants and figure out those that made modern humans different from their predecessors or cousin species. Neanderthals are the latest humans to become extinct, and many factors made them the best representatives of archaic humans. Even though a number of comparisons have been made sporadically between Neanderthals and modern humans, mostly following a candidate gene approach, the major breakthrough took place with the sequencing of the Neanderthal genome. The initial genome-wide comparison, based on the first draft of the Neanderthal genome, has generated some interesting inferences regarding variations in functional elements that are not shared by the two species and the debated admixture question. However, there are certain other genetic elements that were not included or included at a smaller scale in those studies, and they should be compared comprehensively to better understand the molecular make-up of modern humans and their phenotypic characteristics. Besides briefly discussing the important outcomes of the comparative analyses made so far between modern humans and Neanderthals, we propose that future comparative studies may include retrotransposons, pseudogenes, and conserved non-coding regions, all of which might have played significant roles during the evolution of modern humans.

역사 디지털 휴먼 유형에 따른 제작 기술 및 미디어 활용 특성 연구 - 역사 미디어 콘텐츠 활용 사례를 중심으로 -

김성빈,한정엽 한국공간디자인학회 2022 한국공간디자인학회논문집 Vol.17 No.8

(Background and Purpose) Currently, digital humans are expanding not only in other to games and movies, but also to various industries such as public relations and manufacturing. Looking at the industrial trend, digital humans are being used in various ways, such as virtual YouTubers and digital influencers using various media, so it is time to actively utilize digital humans in historical content as well. Looking at academic research, there is a lack of research on the use cases of historical digital humans despite the fact that there are 318 historical soap operas regularly scheduled from 1964 to 2014, and the historical content is even more extensive when including movies, plays, and games. Therefore, this study analyzes the use cases of historical digital humans in media content for it to be used as basic data for producing historical digital human contents in the future. (Method) In the research method, the historical human types were first classified according to a recording method such as biography, narrative/simple record, existing, or photo/image. It analyzed the utilization and characteristics of the representative cases of historical digital humans by the means of each type based on the characteristics of production technology and media. (Results) Accordingly, in this study, it classified historical digital humans into four types and presents production technology and media utilization. The biographical human type is used in real-time mixed reality media using a 3D modeling writing tool based on historical record culture. The narrative/simple recorded human type is used in broadcast media using a motion capture writing tool based on oral literature. The existing human type is used in fixed device type media using volumetric production technology based on real people. The photo/image human type is utilized in media platforms using AI technology based on images such as portraits or photos of people. (Conclusions) As a result of the analysis, it was possible to identify differences in the appearance of the person whether the person was the same as the real one or the graphic appearance was visible by the historical digital human type, and it was possible to identify differences in the utilization method of media according to the production technology. It was also possible to derive which media was appropriate for historical digital humans depending on the media characteristics. It is hoped that this study will be able to suggest a plan that can be effectively utilized in the future when producing historical media contents based on digital humans.

백석 시의 생태학적 의인화와 인간애

김옥성 문학과 환경학회 2012 문학과 환경 Vol.11 No.2

This paper examines the aspects and meanings of ecological personifications and love for human in Baek Seok’s poetry. Baek Seok’s poetry does not demonstrate human-centered and romantic personifications but ecological ones directed toward restoring human-nature relations. His personifications reveal his perception of nature as being equal to humans, while his poetic subjects sharply grasp the differences of the two hidden behind the equality. Animals deserve respect in that they have equal lives as humans, but in terms of differences, humans may inevitably take advantage of animals. This idea of nature-human equality with the assumptions of differences reminds us of mythological and ecological ethics. Baek’s delicate observations of creatures indicate that his ecological perceptions are rooted deep down in the biophilia, love for all life. Ecologism without regard to human dignity has a risk of running toward anti-humanism. Even though humans are merely one of the members in the ecosystem, their unique existence as perceivers and ethical agents cannot be denied. The ecological idea of humans as part of nature entails the following: if humans are equal to nature, then all humans are equal, and respect for nature dictates respect for humans as well. Therefore, ecologism without love for human has an intrinsic paradox. In this regard, Baek’s poetry successfully avoids such a paradox and displays ecological imagination with love for humans. His poetic subjects show love and respect for both nature and humans and pursue an ecological community where all beings co-exist in harmony and equality. Meanwhile, the poetic subjects notice the differences and pain in individual entities, escaping from ecofascism.

유교와 환경철학

최재목 한국환경철학회 2024 환경철학 Vol.0 No.37

이 논문은 유교의 환경철학에 대해 논의한 것이다. 유교의환경첧가은 자연, 생태계, 생명을 배경으로 느슨한 인간중심주의를 지향한다. 천지만물을 중시하지만, 기본적으로는 인간을 중심에 두고 사유한다. 유교에서는 존재 자체를 하나의 증여 즉 선물로서 본다. 주돈이의 사유에서 살필 수 있듯이, 우주는 천지만물에 두루 내재해 있음을 보여준다. 그래서 인간과 만물은 이러한 의미 체계 속에서 감응하고 있음을 알려준다. 아울러 우주가 증여한 인간과 만물의 공경(모심-섬김)할 것을요청한다. 아울러 유교에서는 우주와 인간은 모두 하나로 연결되어 있다고 본다. 인간은 우주 내 존재이다. 이것을 자각함으로써 인간과 만물은각기 제 자리를 잡고 각자의 본성대로 완성하게 한다. 그런데, 인간이 없으면 하늘과 땅의 가치를 실현할 길이 없으므로, 인간을 위한 환경을 지향한다. 이것이 바로 유교적 인문주의의 의미이다. 기본적으로 유교는 세계의 존재 이치가 인간 삶의 윤리임에 자각하는 데서 출발한다. 그래서인간이 지구환경 내의 존재임을 강조하고 이 속에서 인간이 인간답게 사는 환경을 만들어가고자 했다. This paper discusses the environmental philosophy of Confucianism. Confucian environmental philosophy pursues loose anthropocentrism withnature, ecosystem, and life as its background. It values all things in the universe,but fundamentally thinks with humans at the center. Confucianism views exisence itself as a gift, a gift. As can be seen fromZhou Dunyi’s thoughts, the universe is inherent in all things in the universe. Therefore, it shows that humans and all things are in touch within this systemof meaning. It also requests that humans and all things be revered (served)as gifts from the universe. In addition, Confucianism sees the universe andhumans as connected as one. Humans are beings within the universe. Byrecognizing this, humans and all things each find their place and completetheir own nature. However, since there is no way to realize the value of heavenand earth without humans, it pursues an environment for humans. This is themeaning of Confucian humanism. Confucianism basically starts from recognizing that the reason for theexistence of the world is the ethics of human life. So, we wanted to emphasizethat humans exist within the Earth’s environment and creat an environmentin which humans can live like humans.

환웅의 홍익인간 이념 재해석과 생태학적 공생 가치

임재해(Lim, Jae Hae) 한국유라시아연구원 2024 유라시아문화 Vol.10 No.-

This study aims to point out several problems in the existing theory of Hongik Human (humanitarianism) and reinterpret the humanitarian ideal based on the achievements of Hwanwoong, the main agent of this ideology. Further, the study identifies the value of ecological symbiosis from the perspective of bon-puri (Korean shamanic narratives or mythology) concept of history, and applies its usefulness to the post-human era. Since Hwanwoong, the son of the king of heaven, descended from heaven to earth to practice the spirit of humanitarianism. By retracing and analyzing his activities on earth, the true meaning of humanitarianism can be interpreted. The meaning will be discussed through both holistic interpretation based on the narratives of historical records related to the Hwanwoong bon-puri and analytical interpretation based on his specific activities. From a holistic point of view, gods, humans, and animals in the Hwanwoong bon-puri exist relatively, but are all cyclical beings whose existence alternates between the three categories of entity. In the next life, the god may live as a human; an animal may live as a human; and a human may live as the god, freely crossing the boundaries between the three entities. Therefore, the essence of humanitarianism is that humans, gods, and animals are not differential but equal in relations by interacting with one another in a symbiotic manner. From an analytical point of view, Hwanwoong practiced the spirit of sustainable symbiosis by adapting to the changing climate while controlling the wind and rain, doing farming in a symbiotic relationship with nature, and protecting the globe as a global village where all living creatures were connected to each other. When foreign immigrants, symbolized as the bear and tiger, came to Hwanwoong, not only did he help them get what they wanted on their side, but even when Ungnyeo (bear woman) asked him to marry her, he granted her wish after transforming into a human being, ultimately achieving a true symbiosis by breaking the barrier between the god and the animal. The generalization of the value of symbiosis implied in humanitarianism expands to the idea of ‘humanitarian global village’: dedicating yourself to benefit all things in heaven and earth. Our global village is now facing a technological crisis in the context of ‘Singularity’ as well as an ecological crisis in the context of ‘Anthropocene’. If the crucial point of Singularity is reached in the future, considerable advances in artificial intelligence(AI) would far surpass human abilities; thus, humans could no longer keep AI under control. This state of emergency would inevitably lead to the advent of post-human era during which AI would be the dominant influence. The number of post-human populations, such as cyborgs and androids, would be growing quickly, and thus humans, who are of relatively low intelligence and physically weak, would inevitably give way to post-humans. Humans might be driven out of their jobs and get under the control of cyborgs and androids. In that sense, the only way to prevent such a grim future for humanity is to realize symbiosis as the highest value. Humans’ pursuit of symbiosis with other living creatures can be applied to deep learning for AI because AI can learn the values sought by humanity. Therefore, instead of treating androids like servants, we should provide them with personality rights and find ways to have a symbiotic relationship with them as electronic personhood. Consequently, the ideology of humanitarianism, where symbiosis among humans, gods, and animals is valued, should be developed as an idea to overcome the ecological crisis, as well as an alternative to practice symbiosis between humans and electronic personhood in the future post-human era.

Is the Morality of Human Beings Superior to the Morality of Non-Human Beings? : Debate over Human versus Animal Nature in the Joseon Period

홍정근 한국학중앙연구원 한국학중앙연구원 2011 Korea Journal Vol.51 No.1

Confucian scholars of Joseon Korea carried out a philosophical debate on what they referred to as the original nature of humans versus non-human beings including animals. This debate arose from the correspondence between two followers of the Zhu Xi School in Korea, Oeam and Namdang, in 1709. The main question of the debate was whether humans and other beings including animals have equal natures. Following them, many scholars engaged in the debate, dividing into two groups: Nak-ron 洛論 and Ho-ron 湖論. Nak-ron scholars thought that the original nature of humans and other non-human beings was equal. Ho-ron scholars thought that the original nature of humans was different than that of other beings. According to Nak-ron opinion, animals inherently possessed a morality equal to the morality of humans. According to Ho-ron opinion, animals also possessed a morality; however, because the temperaments of animals were considered inferior to those of humans, the morality of animals was also considered inferior to the morality of humans.