명(明)의 만주지역 영토인식에 관한 연구

남의현 간도학회 2019 간도학보 Vol.2 No.1

본 연구는 명대 조선과 명의 국경선을 연구한 논문이다. 일반적으로 명대 조선과의 국경선을 압록강과 두만강으로 설정하고 있다. 1480년대 이전은 압록강에서 180여 리 지점인 연산관, 이후는 100여 리 지점인 봉황성이 되어야 한다. 이것은 압록강~연산관(1480년대 이전), 압록강~봉황성(1480년대 이후~청대)이 국경지대가 되어야 한다는 것을 의미한다. 그런 의미에서 압록강을 국경선으로 그린 지도는 재고되어야 한다. 압록강이 조선과 명의 국경선이 될 수 없음은 명대 요동변장을 통해서도 알 수 있다.명나라는 1368년 건국 후 요동에서 몽골을 축출하면서 군정기관 요동도사를 설치하였다. 명나라는 요동도사를 방어하기 위해 25개의 衛를 설치하고 이를 지키기 위해 요동변장을 수축하였다. 요동변장은 요서의 산해관과 요동 북부의 개원을 연결하면서 동쪽 압록강 방면으로 향한다. 하지만 압록강으로 연결되지 않고 있다. 또한 명대 길림과 흑룡강 지역에 분포하던 여진부락 역시 명의 판도가 될 수 없다. 두만강 유역은 명의 행정구역에 편입되지 않았으며 명이 형식적으로 여진부락을 여진위소로 편입했을 뿐이다. 흑룡강 하류 유역에 설치한 노아간도사 역시 요동도사와는 달리 상설기구가 아니라 임시초무기구이며 명 전기에 이미 요도동사 흡수되어 그 기능을 상실하였다. 흑룡강 유역 역시 명이 ‘版圖外’ 지역이었다. This study aims at the Liaodong border area in Ming Dynasty. As discussed, the Liaodongbazhan(遼東八站) located between Choseon and Ming experienced a lot of change. In the early days of the Ming dynasty, Ming applied the drastic measure of shutting off Liaodong to secure a path for moving into Liaodong and discontinuing the alliance of North-Yuan(北元) and Korea. The background for Ming shutting of the area as such was that they had no specialized army to protect the Liaodongbazhan area. Alliance with Mongolia was attempted over 5 times in the Yong-le(永樂) period, and approximately 180 wei-suo(衛所) were installed in the Jurchen area. However, in spite of this expansion of wei-suo(衛所) during the Yong-le period, Ming failed in including the Jurchen and Liaodongbazhan area into their territory. Afterwards, Ming attempted to implement a strategy consisting of military occupation of the Liaodongbazhan area between Liaodongdusi and the Yalu River and reinforcing this area with forts etc., to build a strong defensive front around Liaodongdusi. As a part of this strategy, they rebuilt forts in various locations in the Liaodongbazhan including the Fenghuang mountains(鳳凰山) which was not far from the Yalu River. Through this strategy Ming came to take over the Liaodongbazhan area from Liaoyang(遼陽) to Fenghuangcheng(鳳凰城). The border transgression problem between Choseon and Ming could not be fundamentally solved. An important reason for this was that Ming did not regulate the problem of border transgression in the Liaodongbazhan region strongly. This situation in which the Liaodongbazhan region was not under the control of Ming after Youngle's death(1403~1424) as no more active foreign policy was available, they changed their strategy to defend Liaodong based on Liaodongdusi which was leading to founding a solid Liaodong Defense Line in middle and late Ming dynasty. Soon, Liaodongdusi became a military organization in the Far eastern area to defend Liaodong in the beginning of the 15th century. Although there was some time to seek expansion like Young-le's regime, they had a defensive role in general in the relation with Northern territory tribes. Along with this background, Liaodong Defense Line was cut back and they began to establish an outpost at Amnok river. Nuergandusi(奴兒干都司) was established in the form of dusi(都司) but it could not maintain it's form with stability all the time during Ming dynasty. It was set up by Yong-le emperor(永樂帝) during his term of office in order to stablize the rear region through Meng-gu subjugation and subjugate or appease Jurchen that settled around Song-hua and Hei-long river. But Nuergandusi failed to enlarge the function and control over Jurchen after Yong-le. It was impossible for Nuergandusi to govern the Administration and the administration of Justice in all the regions except the extent of jurisdiction of Liaodongdusi(遼東都司, Rigional Military Command), because it was set up on the extreme outskirt in Liadong. Rather it is reasonable that Nuergandusi managed the officials of Jurchen Wei-suo(衛所) around Song-hua(松花) and Hei-long river(黑龍江). The important duty of Nuergandusi is to guide and protect a envoy who was sent to Jianzhou Jurchens(建州女眞)or deliver a document. We can judge these facts from the administrative organization of Nuergandusi. There are no traces that many troops stayed there, rather about two hundreds of soldiers who were dispatched from Liadong treated most of military affairs. In other words, there are no independent administrative organization and the administration of justice in Nuergandusi, and it's function had the power of influence during Yong-le's period, when foreign activity was flourishing. Reaching Xuan-de's(宣德) period, the control power over Jurchen became weak and also there was no more restraining influence and control power over Meng-gu. Yong-le emperor tried to subjugate Meng-gu and gave them a blow. But he could not extinguish them. Both the growth of Jurchen and the advance of Meng-gu in Nuergandusi region made Nuegandusi difficult to peform the function more. Ming's frontier policy was changed from positive subjugation to negative defence. As a result, Ming dynasty could not restore Nuergandusi any more.

명대 遼東 接境地帶의 형성과 변화 : 遼東八站과 女眞衛所(羈縻衛)의 성격을 중심으로

남의현(Nam, Eui-Hyeon) 중앙대학교 중앙사학연구소 2020 중앙사론 Vol.0 No.51

Ming established a defense system centered on ‘Liaodongdusi’ in the first year of Hong-wu and attempted to enter Jurchen’s territory based on this system. At the time, however, it was unable to concentrate its military power on the Jurchen, devoted to the maintenance of the system of Liaodongdusi and the defense of Mongolia. Thereby the ‘Tie-ling wei’ and ‘San-wan wei’ that had been set up in Yalu River and Tuman River for the containment of Jurchen and Joseon were transferred to northern of Liaodongdusi. Ming maintained the system in the period of Yung-le’s resign and re-tried to advance into Jurchen’s territory such as Hui-rong River. First, the establishment of ‘Nuergan-dusi’ to include the Hui-rong River in the jurisdiction of the Ming and at the same time to establish a ‘wei-suo’ in a number of Jurchen’s town to make it a Ming’s jurisdiction. After the establishment, Nuergan-dusi became a permanent organization, failed to develop stably, and remained a temporary military organization with 10 military activities as needed. Moreover, in the period of Xuan-de’s resign, Nuergan-dusi completely lost its function, so Hui-rong River became an out-of-door region. Ming also wanted to advance into the Tuman River watershed. In the process, ‘Mengke-temur’ in ‘Jian-zhou Jurchen’ became a prime target for Ming to conciliate due to its strong tribe. However, since Mengke-temur was already under Joseon influence, Joseon and Ming caused conflict over them. Ming’s entry into Jurchen’s territory had a variety of objectives, such as strengthening military forces to conquer Mongolia, securing rear forces, separating Joseon and Jurchen, and restraining Joseon from advancing Liaodong. Because of this, Ming had a strong will to secure Jurchen’s jurisdiction. Eventually, Mengke-temur gradually moved away from Joseon as he leaned toward Ming. The situation of Jian-zhou Jurchen breakaway from Joseon can be regarded as being temporarily incorporated into Ming s wei-suo system, but Jurchen was distributed over a vast Liaodong, and their overall change process meant Jurchen s growth. The 15th-century Joseon and Ming joint Jurchen conquest and strengthening of border defenses reflect the growth of Jurchen and the resulting Liaodong crisis. Ming s defensive line construction means Liaodongdusi’s defense, but it is also a transition to passive policy and a growth of foreign forces. In this sense, the 15th century is the period when Ming s foreign advance activities are most vigorous and at the same time turn into a passive defense policy centered on ‘The Great Wall’. Therefore, when we understood the period of Yung-le’s resign, it was simply understood as a period when foreign activities flourished, but it had obvious limitations in terms of its effectiveness. It can be said that these limitations have been one of the important reasons for the transition from Ming s aggressive offensive to defensive defense.

명(明)과 여진(女眞)의 관계

남의현(NAM Eui-hyeon) 고구려발해학회 2007 고구려발해연구 Vol.29 No.-

We have examined the characteristics and distortions of China's researches on Manchuria history of Ming Dynasty and its countermeasures. Liaodong was located east of the Great Wall and Shanhaiguan. Based on its geographical position, Liaodong debauchment by Ming Dynasty was made possible through human and material support from Shandong. Through the victory from Northern Yuan, Ming Dynasty was able to connect Liaodong and Shanhaiguan and began to strengthen a defensive structure of Liaodong. Rooted in Liaodongdusi, a local defensive headquarter, Ming Dynasty strengthened its defensive structure. However, Ming's attempts to influence Mongol and Jurchens areas were unsuccessful. Despite Liaodong was based on Wei-suo system, most of them had to be depended on Shandong. Another factor which inhibited Liaodongdusi to expand was the growths in power of Mongol and Jurchens. Despite Ming's attempts to take over Mongol and Jurchens, most of times, they were unable to succeed. Tieling-wei and Sanwan-wei, which initially planned to be established near Ablok(Yalu) and Duman(Tumen) Rivers, bad been absorbed by Liaodongdusi Moreover, a conflict (concerning Jurchens near Duman(Tumen) River) between Chosun and Ming could not be resolved due to diplomatic failures of Ming Dynasty. Consequently those Jurchens were incorporated into Chosun; Ming Dynasty's plan to include Jurchens area into their territory thus failed. During Yongle years, Yongle's 5 direct rule invasions to Mongol seemed effective and by establishing Nuergandusi and more than 180 of Jurchens Wei-suo, it seemed to temporarily expand Liadongdusi's power of influence over to Jilin and Heilong-River. However, Nuergandusi, losing its initial function, was eventually absorbed by Liadongdusi, and Jurchens newly surfaced as an intimidating figure to Ming Dynasty. Nuergandusi had to be supported by Liadongdusi in terms of human and material resources, and was merely a temporal military organization, not having judicial and administrative authority. During Xuan-de and Zheng-tong years Nuergandusi lost its functions and completely incorporated into Liadongdusi; no continuing military activities, Nuergan area was out of the picture. Not only a limitation in outer expansion, Liadong policy of Ming dynasty was in danger as a whole. Crops from farms, cultivated by stationary soldiers, decreased due to breakaways of Wei￢suo soldiers, and runaways, riots of population, thus, impairing its defensive powers. Confronting these various crises, Ming Dynasty had to change its defensive line to barricades and could only contract a region to its initial form. A contraction of the region was the only choice Ming could choose. Liadong barricade was classified into 3 areas, Liaoxi(遼西), Liaohetao(遼河套), and Liadong barricades. Barricades, a last choice for Ming Dynasty, couldn't perform a role of solid defensive line. Due to the failure of Wei-suo system, they were unable to allocate human resources over the long lines of barricade, consequently, not functioning properly. A contracted Liadong barricade not only a defensive line of Liadongdusi but also a country boundary. Thus, Jurchens region, a region out of barricade line, was out of their influence. This contradicts a current China's claim that Jurchens were part of Ming Dynasty and Yalu and Tumenjiang rivers were boundaries between Chosun and Ming. Moreover, historical documents considered that Jurchens were not part of Ming Dynasty and recognized Jurchens region as wai-yi (外夷) region. In later of Ming Dynasty, due to external threats from Mongol and Jurchens, and internal maximization in contradiction, there were a great decrease in production, shortage of battle horses, and riots. Liadong, located Far East, was an important military base during Liadong times. Liadongdusi was a central organization which managed Liadong and defended north. However, as suggested above, while Liadongdusi expanded to the farthest during Yo

조선시대 서해 북단 해역의 경계와 島嶼 문제 ― 海浪島와 薪島를 중심으로 ―

서인범 명청사학회 2011 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.36

In the late Ming Dynasty period, when the perception of maritime border was indistinct, there were four viewpoints on the starting point of the north-western border between the Ming Dynasty and the Joseon Dynasty; the Nokdo Island at the Yalu River estuary which is located in the coast of Liaodong, the Jangjado Island located in between the Nokdo Island and the Geowoodo Island which belongs to Cheolsan-bu, the Sindo Island located at the strategically significant place for the maritime defense in the mouth of the Yalu River, and the Geowoodo Island located sixteen kilometers away westward from Cheolsan-bu. As a conclusion, the Sindo Island was the starting point of the border of the north-western border. The reason that the Joseon envoys did not recognize the Sindo Island or Geowoodo Island as the territory of the Joseon Dynasty was that lots of people from Liaodong moved to the area and settled down there after the Japanese invasion of 1592. And since Mao Wen-lung, who was expelled from Liaodong area when Nurhaci of Jianzhou Jurchen occupied Liaoning area, established his military post at the Gado Island located within the territory of the Joseon Dynasty and took the offshore control. Therefore the Joseon government could not take this area under her control and had to abandon it temporarily. The Hongzhi Emperor of Ming Dynasty expressed his doubt about the location of Haerang Island and since the era of the King Seongjong of the Joseon Dynasty, it became the direct cause of a diplomatic dispute between the Ming Dynasty and the Joseon Dynasty. People from the Joseon Dynasty traveled to the island or lived there to avoid drafted labor from the government and for a purpose of doing commercial activities or fisheries. The Joseon government, which was deeply concerned about this issue, brought those people back to Joseon and punished them. However, many of Chinese people moved to the Sindo Island located in the territory of Joseon, and settled down there to avoid drafted labor from their government. This could casue a serious problem to the Joseon government thus the government requested Liaodongdusi (the military commander of Liadong area) to prohibit those people from moving to the island. But Liaodongdusi did not properly react to the request. Therefore, the Joseon government tried to put political pressure on Liaodongdusi by notifying him that they would send envoys directly to Beijing in case he did not grant their request. In this way, the Joseon government could solve the problem. The reason that the Joseon government tried to solve the Haerangdo Island and the Sindo Island problem in advance so that it would not develop any bigger problem has an important significance. The Joseon government was concerned that the issue might cause damage on their spirit of toadyism toward the Ming Dynasty. And they saw possibilities of a border dispute between them and the Ming Dynasty which could get caused by a small problem in the borderland.

중국의 명대 동북강역 연구성과와 문제점 분석

남의현(Nam Eui-Hyeon) 강원대학교 인문과학연구소 2009 인문과학연구 Vol.0 No.22

중국의 연구 성과들은 80년대 이후 중국의 역사적 강역과 관련하여 전만주지역이 명의 강역이라는 이론을 체계화시켜 나가고 있다. 본고에서는 이러한 중국 강역사 연구의 문제점을 몇 가지로 나누어 살펴보았다. 우선 강역사 연구의 중요 쟁점이었고 본 연구의 분석대상이 되었던 장성의 동단기점 추적을 통해 압록강 유역 호산산성이 그 기점이 될 수 없음을 우선 검토하였다. 중국이 만리장성의 동단기점이라고 주장한 호산산성은 명대 요동방어를 위해 설치한 요동변장 방어선으로서 강연대보가 설치된 지역이기는 하지만 만리장성과 같이 벽돌장성이 수축된 적이 없으며 하나의 전초기지에 불과함을 알 수 있었다. 더구나 이 지역은 초기부터 명의 행정력이 미치던 관할지역이 아니라 명과 조선의 국경중립지대였으며 여진의 점진적 성장으로 명이 요동도사를 방어하기 위해 후기에 설치한 것이 강연대보였다. 즉 강연대보는 국경중립지대에 설치된 전초기지였으며 압록강 변에 출몰하는 여진족을 감시하고 소규모의 여진족을 방어하는 기능을 할 뿐 만리장성과 같은 선으로 연결된 성벽 축조물이 아니었다. 또한 산해관에서 철령을 거쳐 압록강 변으로 방어선을 형성한 요동변장 역시 벽돌로 축조된 것이 아니며 주로 자연 형세를 이용한 것으로 장성지대와 같이 완벽하게 연결된 일선의 성벽이 아니었다. 요동 방어의 중추인 위소제도 역시 살펴 본 결과 요동도사 소속 25위는 군사적 규모와 역할 등에서 매우 불규칙하고 많은 부역을 담당하였으며 1위 5600명의 정규적인 衛로 구성되지 않아서 내지의 군사 편제와도 다른 특수성을 보여 줌으로써 견고한 방어력을 발휘할 수 없었다. 둘째로 명대 두만강과 백두산이 명의 강역이라는 중국의 논리를 재 고찰하여 문제점을 지적해 보았다. 그 결과 두만강과 백두산 지역에 명이 설치했다고 하는 여진위소들은 여진족의 부락에 위소의 이름을 형식적으로 붙인 것에 불과하였다. 명나라가 영락연간 집중적으로 여진지역에 설치한 다수의 여진위소는 군사적인 정벌을 통해 형성된 것이 아니며 대부분 여진의 촌락에 명이 자의대로 위소의 이름을 붙인 것에 불과하다는 것을 확인할 수 있었다. 또한 여진위소는 민족, 인구수 등 모든 면에서 명나라 내지의 위소와는 전혀 다른 전통적 여진부락에 불과하다는 사실도 지적하였다. 이러한 분석을 보조하는 자료가 『滿洲源流考』인데, 『滿洲源流考』와 같은 청대 사료는 명나라가 지배한 요동의 강역을 開原, 鐵嶺, 遼陽, 瀋陽. 海州, 開州 등에서 끝난 것으로 파악하며 그 동북(여진) 지역은 중 후기로 갈수록 烏拉, 哈達, 葉赫, 輝發 등 여러 여진의 세력권에 속해 있는 것으로 파악한다. 따라서 백두산과 두만강 유역에는 명나라 군사의 실질적인 진출도 없었고 명의 강역이 될 수 없다. 나아가 중국의 연구성과들은 여진 지역에 설치된 명의 위소가 매우 명확하고 명나라의 명령지시를 받은 것처럼 서술하고 있지만 『滿洲源流考』와 같은 사료는 여진위소에는 상당수가 그 실체와 위치도 알 수 없는 ‘虛名’의 衛所가 많았고 그 강역의 원근에 대해서도 알 수 없으며 山川, 城站의 지명과 진위도 애매모호한 것이 많았다고 서술하고 있다. 요약하면 명대 강역은 명의 위소제도의 특수성, 여진위소의 형식적 설치, 명나라의 압록강 두만강, 백두산 지역으로의 진출 실패, 노아간도사의 쇠퇴 등의 원인으로 명의 영향력은 요동도사 지역에 한정되었고 흑룡강, 백두산, 두만강 등의 지역을 그들의 판도로 만들 수는 없었으며 결국 힘이 미치지 않는 ‘版圖外’의 지역일 수밖에 없었다. Researches conducted in China are making it sound as if the entire Manju region was the territory that belonged to the Ming Dynasty through the research conducted on the historical territories of China after the 80s. This research examined the problems pertaining to this type of research on territory conducted in China. First of all, this research reviewed that the eastern point (starting point) of The Great Wall cannot be the Hu-shan, drainage area of the Yalu River. As a result, Hu-shan that is claimed to be the eastern stronghold of The Great Wall was the region that the Jiangyantai-bao is installed as the defense line for the Ming dynasty, and it was pointed out that the point cannot be the eastern stronghold of the long wall by examining that the castle wall using bricks was not contracted. Moreover, this region was not the region that was not overseen administration-wise by the Ming, and it was the neutral zone when it comes to the boundaries of the Ming dynasty and Joseon. And this was the advance base installed for the Ming to defend the Liaodong due to the incremental growth of the Yuzhen Tribe. And this research tracked from the special characteristics of the Wei-suo System, showing that the Liaodong’s transformation cannot be the military facility that is the same as The Great Wall. 25 Wei that belongs to the Liaodongdusi was very irregular in terms of the number of the soldiers and roles and manifests a different facet compared to the military formation of 5600 people of 1 Wei. This study criticized China’s logic that the Dooman River and Mt. Baekdu were those of the Ming dynasty. As a result, this study shows that the Wei installed at the Yuzhen region by the Ming dynasty is merely an attachment of the Wei name to the Yuzhen Tribe in a formal manner. Considerable number of Jurchen Wei-suo that the Ming dynasty installed at the Yuzhen region in a focused manner when it comes to the Yong-le was not formed through military expedition. Wei of the Yuzhen area was merely a traditional Yuzhen Tribe that is completely different from the Wei of the Ming dynasty from all aspects such as ethnic group, number of population etc. Thus, Qing Dynasty’s historical record such as the 『Manjuwonryugo(滿洲源流考)』 is limited to the are that is under the supervision of the Liaodongdusi when it comes to the Liaodong territory governed by the Ming dynasty. In sum, influence on the Ming dynasty’s Manju region should be considered as the region out of the range that certain power does not reach’ where the power of the Ming dynasty did not reach when it comes to most of the Manju regions due to the special nature of the Liaodong Wei-suo System, formative installation of the Jurchen Wei-suo, Ming dynasty’s the Yalu River and Dooman River, failure to enter into the Mt. Baekdu region, and failure to enter into the Huilong River drainage area.

명대 위소제도의 형성과 성격 ― 변경지역의 東寧衛를 중심으로 ―

남의현 명청사학회 2015 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.43

16~17세기 豆滿江 邊境地帶 女眞의 성장과 국제질서의 변화― 瓦爾喀 등 女眞族 통합과정을 중심으로 ―

남의현 명청사학회 2014 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.41

In general, it is known that the Tumen River basin is less populated than the Yalu River (鴨綠江) basin. However, as shown in this study, many more Jurchens were distributed in the Tumen River basin than we can imagine. In the 16th century, Nurhachi (努尔哈赤) needed a large population in order to increase productivity and military power for Jurchen society and expanded into the Tumen River basin to absorb a large number of Jurchens. Nurhachi extensively had absorbed the Jurchens living along the Yalu and Tumen rivers, Baekdu Mountain (白頭山) and the Songhua River (松花江) since 1598, and this enabled him to found the Later Jin (後金) in 1616. The Jurchens living along the Tumen and Songhua Rivers had high agricultural productivity. They were moved to Xing-jing (興京), their base, by Nurhachi after absorbing them. After securing population from the Tumen River basin, Nurhachi targeted at a main military point of Liaodongdusi (遼東都司) in the Ming dynasty. Around 1620, Kaiyuan (開原), Tieling (鉄嶺), Fushun (撫順) and Qinghe (淸河), which were the eastern lines of defense in the Ming dynasty, were fallen by the Jurchens one by one. Around 1621, Liaoyang (遼陽), which was central to Shenyang (瀋陽) and Liadongdusi, was fallen by them. This caused a collapse of the heart of Liaodong (遼東) ruled by the Ming dynasty. This growth of the Jurchens foretold the changing order in East Asia. Although most of the Jurchens living along the Tumen River were absorbed during the reigns of Nurhachi and Hong Taiji (皇太極), the borders between the Qing and Chosun Dynasties and between the Qing Dynasty and Russia were not clearly drawn. As described above, Hong Taiji sent troops to the Tumen and Amur (the Heilong River (黑龍江) and Songhua River basins even after his enthronement in order to secure population. In these situations, Willow Palisade (Liutiao bian; 柳條邊) had been formed since the mid-17th century, and exclusion policy was conducted in the Manchurian (滿洲) region. Thus, many cross-border incidents occurred in the Tumen River area before building the boundary monument on Baekdu Mountain. This means that the Tumen River basin was regarded as a border area because any boundary stone was not placed and modern treaty was not concluded. This situation can be applied to the relationship between the Qing Dynasty and Russia. In fact, China cannot accept the region where Nurhachi and Hong Taiji absorbed the population as Qing territory. This is because the Qing army absorbed only population by military forces and there is no record that they brought the region under their control as an administrative region of the Qing Dynasty.

明 前期 奴兒干都司의 設置와 衰退

남의현 동북아역사재단 2007 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.16

遼東都司 防禦體系와 支配力의 限界

南義鉉(Nam Eui-Hyeon) 동양사학회 2005 東洋史學硏究 Vol.93 No.-

明初 前期 遼東과 몽골ᆞ女眞의 動向

南義鉉 명청사학회 2006 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.25