선교 역사(Mission History) 기술방식(Historiography)에 대한 제고 : 예수회 선교사 마테오 리치(Matteo Ricci)의 경우를 중심으로

김상근 한국선교신학회 2012 선교신학 Vol.31 No.-

If you want to write a mission history, academic dilemmas hinder you to sustain objective perspectives due to your confessional orientation. We mission historians believe that God has a grand plan of salvation for humankind and we are witnessing His story in the history of mission. Secular historians, however, do not believe in this kind of confession orientation. Rather they despise this kind of approach as the lack of academic objectivity. We mission historian must find the third way for writing mission history which could be shared not only with our fellow Christian scholar but also secular historians who believe in the objectivity as the primal condition for writing history. This paper suggests the method of Jacob Burckhardt(18181897) who proposed a flexible approaches in historiography. He criticizes that history is neither logic nor philosophy which is logical framework is firm and decisive. History writing should, according to Burckhardt, flexible because the interpretation of history should be open. The present author shows that this kind of flexible historiography could be accommodated in a new way of mission historiography. To show an example the author interprets the early Jesuit Missionary Matteo Ricci from the flexible mission historiography: Push factor and Pull factor. The author claims that writing mission history in more flexible historiography could be achieved by comparing push factor of missionary sending and pull factor of missionary receiving. Early Jesuit mission history will be more flexible if we approach the Jesuit mission from politics(of missionary sending from 16thcentury Europe and missionary receiving from the late Ming China's political situation), culture, and religion.

선교 역사(Mission History) 기술방식(Historiography)에 대한 제고 ―예수회 선교사 마테오 리치(Matteo Ricci)의 경우를 중심으로

김상근 한국선교신학회 2012 선교신학 Vol.31 No.-

If you want to write a mission history, academic dilemmas hinder you to sustain objective perspectives due to your confessional orientation. We mission historians believe that God has a grand plan of salvation for humankind and we are witnessing His story in the history of mission. Secular historians, however, do not believe in this kind of confession orientation. Rather they despise this kind of approach as the lack of academic objectivity. We mission historian must find the third way for writing mission history which could be shared not only with our fellow Christian scholar but also secular historians who believe in the objectivity as the primal condition for writing history. This paper suggests the method of Jacob Burckhardt(1818­1897) who proposed a flexible approaches in historiography. He criticizes that history is neither logic nor philosophy which is logical framework is firm and decisive. History writing should, according to Burckhardt, flexible because the interpretation of history should be open. The present author shows that this kind of flexible historiography could be accommodated in a new way of mission historiography. To show an example the author interprets the early Jesuit Missionary Matteo Ricci from the flexible mission historiography: Push factor and Pull factor. The author claims that writing mission history in more flexible historiography could be achieved by comparing push factor of missionary sending and pull factor of missionary receiving. Early Jesuit mission history will be more flexible if we approach the Jesuit mission from politics(of missionary sending from 16th­century Europe and missionary receiving from the late Ming China's political situation), culture, and religion.

명말 예수회 선교사들의 사회적 적응에 관한 연구: 새로운 이름 짓기를 중심으로

황종열(Hwang, Jong Ryul) 광주가톨릭대학교 신학연구소 2020 神學展望 Vol.- No.210

미켈레 루지에리와 마테오 리치를 비롯해서 많은 예수회원들이 명나라 말기라고 하는 구체적인 삶의 자리에서 ‘차이나 미션’을 수행하였다. 그리고 이들이 하느님께 창조된 존재들로서 동아시아 역사 주체들과 만나 동아시아 교회를 형성하는 과정에서 역동과 폭력, 기쁨과 슬픔들이 발생하였다. 이는 역사의 관점에서도 접근할 수 있다. 필자는 ‘역사에 대한 신학적 성찰’을 기반으로 명말 예수회 선교사들이 차이나에서 펼친 선교 과정에서 시도한 새로운 ‘이름 짓기’와 연결하여 성찰하였다. 모든 존재는 자기가 들어선 시간과 공간 안에서 그 시간과 공간에 적응해가고 또 여기에서 만나는 모든 실재들에 적응해 간다. 모든 적응은 선택적 성격과 상호적 성격을 갖는데, 적응에 대한 이런 이해 위에 본고에서는 먼저 루지에리와 리치가 이름도 알려지지 않은 한 차이나 청년의 도움으로 라틴식 하느님 호칭인 Deus를 ‘天主’로 정착시킨 점을 주목한다. 이렇게 하느님의 이름을 차이나에 육화시킨 예수회 선교사들 또한 자신들의 서구식 이름을 차이나식으로 바꾸어서 차이나화하였다. 이런 적응을 기초로 이들은 차이나 입교자들에게 서구 가톨릭 세례명을 새 이름으로 주면서, 이들이 하느님의 새로운 자녀요 하느님의 새로운 백성으로 다시 탄생한 것을 확인할 수 있도록 매개하였다. 그러나 이런 적응을 시도하는 과정에서 서구 선교사들은 차이나 문화와 사회적 실재와 관련하여 차이나인들의 존재 차원을 지켜 가는 데 한계를 드러내면서, 차이나 가톨릭인들을 서구식 가톨릭 신앙살이 방식에 종속시키기도 하였다. 본고에서는 새로운 이름 짓기에 초점을 맞추어서 선교사들이 행했던 이 선의의 적응과 적응의 폭력 과정을 명말 예수회 선교사들이 직접 기록한 자료들에 근거해서 이들이 들어서 있던 사회 관계 속에서 구체적으로 추적하여 살펴보고자 하였다. Every one’s doing theology begins and grows and produces its fruits in a concrete life situations. Thus every theology has historicity and every history can be connected with theology. In the concrete living context of the Late Ming Period Jesuit missionaries attempted to do their “China mission” in which they met East Asian people created by God Himself and caused fullness and destruction and joys and griefs. We may approach to it from the perspective of theology and from that of history. Researcher chose to reflect on the works of the China Jesuit missionaries in the late Ming dynasty in terms of their new name for of God, for themselves and for the Chinese people whom they baptized. All beings adapt to the given time and space and the other beings that they encounter in their own time and space. Every adaptation has a selective and an interrelated character. On this understanding of adaptation, this study noted that Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci inculturated Latin God"s name Deus as “天主” in Chinese with the help of a young anonymous non-Catholic Chinese person’s insight. On the basis of this new naming of God these two missionaries and the other China Jesuit missionaries, changed their European names into the Chinese style. On this sinification, while they gave new baptismal names to the Chinese catechumens, they opened the opportunity to be reborn for the new Chinese Catholics as the children of God and as the people of God. But in the process of this adaptation, the Western missionaries revealed their limitations in keeping the religious and cultural dimensions of the Chinese people and tried to dominate religiously the Chinese Catholics in their faith life. Focusing on the new naming of the Western missionaries, this study examines their healthy adaptational endeavors as well as the religious violence revealed during their Chinese mission in the concrete social relationships on the basis of the works of the Jesuit missionaries themselves.

초기 예수회의 교육과 마테오 리치의 선교활동

심종혁(Sim, Jong Hyeok) 서강대학교 신학연구소 2011 신학과 철학 Vol.- No.18

마테오 리치의 중국 선교활동의 정신과 원리는 그가 예수회원으로서 받은 교육, 즉 영적, 인간적, 학문적, 그리고 사도적 교육에 뿌리를 두고 있음을 부인할 수는 없다. 이 논문에서는 우선 마테오 리치가 받았을 초기 예수회의 양성, 즉 수련자로서 받았을 영성 교육과 콜레지오 로마노에서 인문학과 철학, 그리고 인도의 고아에서 받은 신학 교육의 내용과 특징을 예수회의 『회헌』(Constitutiones)과 「교육지침서」(Ratio Studiorum)을 통해 살펴본다. 그리고 이러한 교육의 효과들이 그가 중국에 들어가 중국의 언어와 문화 및 고전들을 공부하여 그것들을 자신이 받아온 예수회원으로의 교육에 통합하는 과정과, 이를 바탕으로 시행착오를 거치며 자신이 실천하고 실행한 선교활동들, 즉 교우관계를 통한 선교활동, 서양의 과학적 지식과 그 응용을 통한 선교활동, 그리고 중국어로 출판한 『천주실의』를 비롯한 저술을 통한 선교활동 등에 어떻게 반영되어 드러나고 있는가를 살펴본다. The spirit and principles of Matteo Ricci’s missionary activities in China should not be studied in isolation from the education, spiritual as well as intellectual influences he received as a young Jesuit. Surely his spiritual, academic and apostolic formation was fundamentally rooted in the Jesuit formation process. The present study reviews the spiritual and apostolic formation he received as a Jesuit novice, prescribed in the Jesuit Constitutions, the intellectual formation he received at the Roman College and theological education at the Jesuit seminary at Goa, India, prescribed in the Ratio Studiorum. Having a perspective from this review of the formation process of early Jesuits, we pay attention to understand how these Jesuit spirit and principles were implemented in Ricci’s missionary works: (1) his dedication to understand and learn the Chinese language, cultural traditions and classics, (2) his faithful and constant works to develop a mutual and supportive relationship with a wide range of people of all strata, (3) his missionary works through publishing books of Christian thoughts in Chinese, especially the True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, and (4) his activities of introducing western sciences. In all these works and life of Matteo Ricci the Ignatian spirituality is manifested and implemented.

Rodrigues the Gift-Giver: A Korean Envoy’s Portrayal of His Encounter with a Jesuit in 1631

임종태 한국학중앙연구원 한국학중앙연구원 2016 Korea Journal Vol.56 No.2

This paper addresses an extremely favorable portrayal by an envoy of Joseon Korea, Jeong Du-won, of the Portuguese Jesuit João Rodrigues, whom Jeong met in the course of his tributary mission to Ming China in 1630–1631. In his subsequent report to the Joseon king, Jeong portrayed Rodrigues as a benign gift-giver, while portraying himself as a passive recipient of Western gifts. Jeong’s characterization of the Jesuit and his gifts has provided modern historians with an important case to illustrate their Eurocentric account of Western Learning in Korea, an account in which the Koreans played simply the passive role of recipient of European culture. While questioning this Eurocentric account, I shall situate Jeong’s portrayal of the Jesuit in its political contexts—Jeong’s China mission and the bureaucratic politics of the Joseon dynasty. The image of Rodrigues as the benign gift-giver was created by Jeong, the Joseon envoy who served as the transmitter of higher culture from China to Korea. In his self-serving rhetorical efforts to legitimize the “barbarian” informant from the West, he managed to legitimize his own achievements within the China mission.

천주교에 대한 연행사들의 도교적 이해 양상 연구

이원석 동국대학교 동서사상연구소 2017 철학·사상·문화 Vol.0 No.23

This paper amis to reveal the phenomena in the meetings of two different civilizations and suggests several hypotheses which could explain that phenomena, and examines the validity of those hypotheses one by one, by analyzing the records of Joseon missions to imperial China, in terms of the mutual contact and changes of East and West. Although Jesuits missionaries underlined the similarity between Catholicism and pre-Qin(秦) Confucianism, Joseon missions often used the images, terms, and doctrines of Daoism when they described their understandings of the church and the doctrines of Catholicism. We can consider three possibilities to explain their attitude. First, East Asians often adopted the images of Daoism when they imagined the products of other civilization which was located in remote places, and Joseon missions also had those attitudes. Second, it is possible for Joseon missions who knew well the situations of China at that times to regard Catholicism as the likes of ‘White Lotus Society(白蓮敎)’. Third, the ontology of Daoism being similar to that of Catholicism, Jesuit often used to adopt the terms of Daoism when they wrote the books or pamphlets which preached the gospel. Although Joseon missions understood Catholicism with some prejudices, it was those prejudices that let Catholicism show its new dimensions to Joseon missions which had not been exposed in West. 이 논문은 동과 서의 상호 접촉과 변화라는 관점 하에서 조선 연행사들의 천주당 방문 기록을 분석함으로써, 서로 다른 두 문명이 접촉할 때 일어나는 사상적 교착 양상을 가능한 한 있는 그대로 드러내고, 그런 양상이 있게 된 원인을 제시하고서 그 타당성을 검토해 보고자 했다. 연행사들은 천주교당과 천주교의 교리 이해 내용을 서술할 때 도교적‧도가철학적 이미지, 표현, 그리고 교의를 사용하는 경우가 많았다. 예수회 선교사들이 보유론(補儒論)적 입장에 서서 천주교와 선진(先秦) 유학의 유사성을 강조했음에도 불구하고 연행사들이 천주교를 도교적‧도가철학적 시각 틀에 담아 이해한 까닭은 세 가지로 짚어볼 수 있다. 첫째, 동아시아인들은 이역(異域)의 문물을 상상할 때 도교적‧도가철학적 이미지를 차용하는 경향이 있었고 조선 연행사들도 그런 경향을 보여주었다는 것이다. 둘째, 당시 중국에는 천주교를 백련교와 유사한 종교로 규정하는 시선들이 많았고, 실제로 백련교는 천주교와 유사한 계율을 갖고 있었기 때문에, 중국의 사정에 정통한 연행사들이 천주교를 백련교적 도교로 인식했을 가능성이 있다. 셋째, 예수회 선교사들이 천주교 전도(傳道) 문헌을 저술하면서 도교적‧도가철학적 용어를 사용하는 경우가 빈번했는데, 그렇게 할 수 있었던 데에는 천주교와 도교가 존재론 상에서 상통할 수 있는 면을 갖고 있었기 때문이다. 연행사들은 이상과 같은 이유로 선입견을 갖고서 천주교를 이해했지만, 오히려 그러한 선입견으로 인해 천주교는 서양에서는 잘 드러나지 않았던 새로운 면모를 조선의 연행사들에게 보여주게 되었을 것이다.

예수회 중국 선교사들과 서양과학의 조선 전래

심종혁(Sim, Jong Hyeok) 서강대학교 신학연구소 2012 신학과 철학 Vol.- No.20

본 논문은 명말 청초 중국에서 활동한 예수회원들의 과학적 저술과 업적들이 선교사업의 일환으로 진행된 경과와 그것들이 어떤 경로를 통해 조선에 전래되었는지, 그리고 그러한 작업들이 중국과 조선의 사회에 가져온 영향에 대하여 고찰한다. 특히 마테오 리치가 처음으로 중국어로 제작한 세계 지도와 아담 샬이나 베르비스트 등의 뛰어난 예수회 천문학자들이 중국에서 새롭게 제작한 다양한 세계 지도들, 서양의 태양력 중심의 천문역법을 통해 중국의 전통 역법을 개혁하는 과정, 그리고 중국식 천문도와 서양식 천문도를 창조적으로 종합하여 제작한 다양한 천문도들의 제작 경위를 검토하면서 이들이 조선에 전래된 경위를 살펴본다. 논문은 이러한 활동이 중국과 조선 사회의 세계와 자연에 대한 인식에 커다란 변화를 가져왔다는 것을 지적하면서, 이들이 실사구시를 중시하는 조선의 실학자들 사이에서 ‘서학’ 운동 속에 포용되어 조선의 사회 변혁에 가져온 영향을 가늠하여 본다. This article considers the scientific works of Jesuit missionaries in late Ming and early Ching and their influences upon China and Chosun Korea as they were introduced into Korea through diplomatic exchanges between the two nations. Among the Jesuit scientific enterprises, Jesuit Cartography, Reform of the Chinese Calendar according to the Western Solar Calendar, and Reform of the Celestial Planisphere were of the most prominent importance. Matteo Ricci’s first World Map in Chinese played a key role in the history of cultural exchange between East and West. However, it is Adam Schall’s introduction of the Western Solar Calendar to China and the reform by him and Verbiest of the Chinese Calendar and the Celestial Planisphere that brought about a social and political impact on the Chinese society in a sufficiently meaningful fashion. It was through the scholars of ‘Western Learning’ that a similar historical process took place in late Chosun society as well.

“My Conscience is Fine as Chinese Silk”: Genetic Joyceastasian Studies

( Eishiro Ito ) 한국제임스조이스학회 2021 제임스조이스저널 Vol.27 No.2

This paper focuses on the relationship between Joyce and the Chinese elements of his works. How and to what extent did James Joyce know East Asia? When he wrote a list of forty languages used for Finnegans Wake, Chinese is listed 6th from the top, Japanese 7th (1938: JJA 63:343). Chinese and Japanese languages are doubtlessly among the minor language groups for him. Alphabetical characters represent phonemes while Chinese characters can be considered as thought-pictures describing concepts. Learning Chinese and Japanese elements would have given Joyce some opportunities to reevaluate various kinds of scripts, which encouraged him to infuse some visual effects as thought-images into Finnegans Wake. Joyce’s interest in East Asia initially arose from the Jesuit missionary activities that he learned at Jesuit schools. He read “The Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry” serialized in The Little Review between September and December, 1919. It was written by Ernest Fenollosa and Ezra Pound. His “Orientalism” was gradually developed with his daughter Lucia who had been interested in Chinese and Japanese art since the mid-1920s. As The James Joyce Archive and other manuscripts reveal, many words and phrases related to China were inserted into Ulysses after The Little Review serialization. Joyce made similar late insertions in Finnegans Wake. Joyce also wrote a memo under the subject heading “Chinese” while finalizing Finnegans Wake in 1938 (JJA 40:152-53; VI.B.46-47-48). Inserting Chinese elements at the finishing stage, Joyce successfully made his alphabetic texts more revolutionary.

성경 도해와 문화전수 : 『천주강생출상경해』 (天主降生出像經解, 1637)를 중심으로

서원모,곽문석 한국교회사학회 2017 韓國敎會史學會誌 Vol.47 No.-

최근 동서교류, 특히 그리스도교와 동아시아 문화의 만남에 대한 연구가 국내외에서 활발하게 진행되고 있다. 이 연구는 그리스도교 한문 전교서가 동서 문화 교류 연구에 주요한 사료가 될 수 있다는 것을 강조하기 위해 저술되었다. 이 연구의 초점은 이탈리아 출신 예수회 선교사 쥴리오 알레 니(Giulio Aleni 艾儒略, 1582-1649)가 저술한 천주강생출상경해(天主降 生出像經解, 1637; 이하 출상경해)이다. 출상경해는 예수의 생애를 탄생부터 승천까지 그림으로 표현한 작품으로 스페인 출신 예수회 사제인 제 로니모 나달(Jerónimo Nadal, 1507-1580)의 복음역사 도해집(Evangelicae historiae imagines)의 한문본이라고 말할 수 있는데, 알레니는 복음역사 도해집을 3분의 1정도로 간추려 번역했다. 이 연구는 알레니가 나달의 복음역사 도해집을 중국인 독자를 위해 어떻게 번역하고 변용시켰는지, 곧 번역과 문화 전수란 관점에서 출상경해를 연구한다. 이를 위해 이 연구는 네 가지 주제를 다루고자 한다. 첫째는 서문격인 “천주강생출상경해인”(天主降生出像經解引)을 통해 출상경해의 목적과 원리를 규명한다. 둘째, 나달의 복음역사 도해집과 출상경해의 구조를 비교하여, 알레니가 복음역사 도해집에서 어떤 도해를 선택하고 또 어떻 게 배열했는지를 다룬다. 셋째, 알레니가 복음역사 도해집에 없는 도해 를 삽입하거나 여러 도해를 하나로 합성한 사례를 중심으로 라틴어 저본의 한문 번역에 대해 고찰한다. 마지막으로 시각 이미지 측면에서 출상경해의 특징을 고찰한다. 나달의 복음역사 도해집은 출상경해 뿐만 아니라 다 로카 신부(Giovanni da Rocha, 1565-1623)의 송염주규정(誦念珠規程, 1620)에 수록된 그림과 요한 아담 샬 폰 벨(Johann Adam Schall von Bell S.J., 1592-1666)의 진정서상(進呈書像, 1640)의 일부 그림의 저본이 되 었다. 이 연구는 나달의 복음역사 도해집의 중국화라는 점에서 이 세 작 품을 비교하여 출상경해의 특징을 규명한다. 결론적으로 출상경해는 라틴어 도상과 해설의 한문화를 통해 서양 그 리스도교의 핵심적 내용을 중국인과 소통하고 전수하려는 시도였다고 평 가할 수 있다. 출상경해는 라틴 그리스도교 문화를 중국에 전수할 때 예 수회 선교사들이 가졌던 실용적이고 창의적인 자세와 함께, 문화적 적응 내지 중국화보다는 서양의 문화를 충실하게 번역하고 전달하려는 양면적 성격을 보여준다. 이러한 양면적 성격은 17세기 동서 문화 교류를 이해하 고 평가하는 중요한 틀이 될 수 있다. 출상경해 이외에도 이 시대 수많 은 한문 전교서에 대한 폭넓은 연구는 명청 시대의 가톨릭교회의 선교를 통해 이루어진 동서 교류의 성격과 면모를 더욱 분명하게 밝혀줄 것이다. Recently studies of East-West cultural exchange, especially the encounter between Christianity and East Asian Culture have drawn great scholarly attention. This study is designed to corroborate that Chinese Christian literature in the Ming-Qing dynasties serves to provide historical resources for research of the East-West cultural contacts. This study focuses on the Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie (天主降生出像經解, 1637) composed by Giulio Aleni (艾儒略, 1582-1649). Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie is a collection of visual images, which depicts Jesus’ life from the conception of John the Baptist to the Pentecost and the crowning of the Virgin Mary, and a Chinese version of the Evangelicae historiae imagines of Jerónimo Nadal (1507-1580), one of Spanish Jesuit priests. In his translation, Aleni reduced this work to one-third of the original 153 images. This study examines Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie with special attention to the quesiton, how Aleni translated and modified Nadal's Evangelicae historiae imagines, that is, from the perspective of translation and cultural transmission. For this purpose, this study deals with four topics. First, drawing on its preface, it elucidates the purpose and principles of Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie. Second, it compares the structure of Nadal's Evangelicae historiae imagines with that of Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jie, and demonstrates which images Aleni selected out of the original text and how he arranged them. Third, it examines the principle and method of Chinese translation of the Latin original by analyzing the cases in which Aleni combined several images of Nadal's Evangelicae historiae imagines into one. Finally, it investigates the visual and artistic aspect of the images of Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie. Nadal's Evangelicae historiae became the original source of not only the images of Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjie but also those of Giovanni da Rocha's Song nianzhu guicheng (誦念 珠規程, 1620) and some pictures of Johann Adam Schall von Bell S.J.'s Jìncheng shu xiang (進呈書像, 1640). This study reveals characteristics of the visual representation of Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie by comparing these three works from the viewpoint of Chinese translation of the same original work. This study asserts in conclusion that Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie was an attempt to communicate and transmit the core of Christianity with Chinese by means of translation of Latin images and notes. Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie shows the practical and creative mind of Jesuit missionaries in transmitting the heritage of Latin Christianity into the Chinese soil, on the one hand, and their intention to translate and adapt the Western culture in a faithful way, on the other hand. My conviction is that such dual aspect will serves as a crucial criterion to understand and evaluate the East-West cultural encounter in the seventeenth century. The extensive study of numerous Christian literature in addition to Tianzhu jiangsheng chuxiang jingjjie will disclose the nature and characteristics of the crosscultural contacts through Catholic mission in the Ming-Qing period.

『口鐸日抄』: 명말 복건성 선교사들과 문인들의 대화록 ― 예수회 사제들의 구술기록이 전하는 중국 문인들의 그리스도교 수용 ―

이진현 명청사학회 2023 명청사연구 Vol.- No.59

『Kouduo Richao 口鐸日抄 Diary of Oral Admonitions』 is a collection of records on the Christian doctrines and other Western knowledge transmitted orally by Jesuit missionaries in Fujian Province in the late Ming Dynasty from 1630 to 1640, which were written by Li Jiubiao 李九標 and other literati converts. The 鐸 in the title is borrowed from Buddhist terms such as 木鐸, which means “enlightening sound” and here refers to Catholic priests or the sermons and exhortations they give. The reason why this book stands out in terms of form is that it is not written by missionaries for themselves. Rather, it is Chinese believers who recorded the words and actions of missionaries, telling the scene of lively conversations between missionaries and locals. The fact that several actual conversations were written down is in contrast to Mateo Ricci's 『Tianzhu shiyi 天主實義 The True Meaning of Heavenly Lord』, which is conducted as one-to-one imaginary conversation between a Western scholar and a Chinese scholar. In terms of content, the unique value of Richao is that it is direct evidence of the process of adapting to the local culture through many trials and errors and the various reactions of many Chinese listeners in the history of exchange between East Asian and European civilizations in the early 17th century. This book also shows the process of accepting, rejecting, or transforming foreign beliefs into a minority sect in the Fujian Province, which was led by the local literati at the beginning of the history of Chinese Catholicism and the end of the Ming Dynasty.