대의제를 둘러싼 번역과 정치 : representation의 번역어로서 대의/대표/상징

김태진 한국정치사상학회 2021 정치사상연구 Vol.27 No.2

Representation, which is often translated as a ‘daeyi(代議)’, implies the multiplicity of the concept itself. In the way we commonly understand, representative democracy cannot be understood as choosing someone to discuss on behalf of someone because direct democracy is not possible. This is not only contrary to the history, but also the mistake of hasty generalization. As seen from the etymology of the representation, it means literally to make it appear again. Then, how was representation understood in Japan, where the representative system was first introduced in modern East Asia? This paper aims to examine how various political positions in the Meiji period understood the concept of representation in the process of translating books related to representative government. During the Meiji period, this concept was understood in three main streams; That is, daeyi(daigi, 代議), daepyo(daihyou, 代表), sangjing(shouchou, 象徵). Simply put, first of all, the People’s Right group(minnkennha, 民權派) thought of the representative system as the opposite of the bureaucracy. And this was not simply a quantitative expansion of political participation, but rather a process to find the public reason like 19th political thought in the West. On the contrary, National Right group(kokkenha, 國權派) emphasized the sovereignty of the country while imagining the emperor as symbol of the nation. They negated the logic that Emperor was Japan itself by using the translation terms differently. In that sense, they are asking us again the essential question of what the representation is. It may show the common sense of problem held by the political forces that are divided into the People’s Rights group and National Right group unlike the previous studies emphasized the difference between them. Overlapping translations about the concept on the representation shows what the political represenation mean during the Meiji period in Japan. 흔히 대의(代議)라는 말로 번역되는 representation은 개념 자체의 다의성을 내포하고 있다. 우리가 흔히 이해하는 방식대로 대의제 민주주의(representative democracy)를 직접 민주주의가 불가능하기 때문에 누군가를 대신해 논의할 사람을 뽑는 것으로 이해하는 방식은 비역사적일뿐 아니라, 선거=representation으로 이해하는 과도한 일반화의 오류를 낳는다. 왜냐하면 re-present라는 어원에서 보듯이 이는 다시 나타나게 한다는 것, 일종의 재현(再-現)에 가깝고 이를 누가, 어떻게 재현하는가는 다양하게 나타날 수 있기 때문이다. 그렇다면 근대 동아시아에서 처음 대의제도를 도입한 일본에서 representation 개념은 어떻게 이해되었을까? 본 논문은 대의정부(representative government)와 관련된 책들이 번역되는 과정 속에서 메이지 시기 다양한 정치적 입장들이 representation 개념을 어떻게 이해했는지를 살펴보고자 한다. 거칠게 정리해 보면 우선 민권파들은 ‘대의(代議)’적인 의미에서 유사전제와 반대되는 것으로 대의제를 생각했다. 그리고 이는 단순히 정치참여의 양적 확대라기보다는 기존의 정치체제에서 제대로 재현되지 못한 리(理)나 공(公)을 찾아나가는 작업이었다. 반면 국권파들은 ‘상징’ 내지 ‘표창(表彰)’으로서 천황을 상정하면서 국권을 강조한다. 이는 천황 자체를 일본으로 파악하는 이들에 대해, 천황=일본이 아니라 천황를 통해 어떻게 정치적 의사를 ‘대표’해 낼 것인가에 있었다. 그렇게 보자면 representation 개념의 번역어로서 ‘대의/대표/상징’은 정치적 과정에서 ‘재현’은 무엇을 의미하는가라는 본질적 질문을 우리에게 다시 던지고 있다. 그것은 기존의 관점에서 민권파, 국권파, 천황파로 구별되는 정치적 세력들이 갖고 있었던 문제의식을 어떤 지점에서는 공통되게 보여주는 한편 일종의 ‘정치적 투쟁’의 양상을 보여준다.

Fodor`s Non-Conceptual Representations and the Computational Theory of Mind

( Mariela Dest?fano ) 서울대학교 인지과학연구소 2013 Journal of Cognitive Science Vol.14 No.2

Fodor (2007; 2008) holds that the very early stages of perceptual processing operate upon non-conceptual representations. In my view, this position is incompatible with the main tenets that Fodor himself (1975; 1998a; 1998b; 2001a) has largely defended in his computational theory of mind (CTM). My aim in this paper is to present the problems CTM would face if the modules involved in perceptual processing computed non-conceptual representations. To achieve this, I will offer a trilemma whose first horn consists of the possibility that perceptual modules operate on both non-conceptual representations and representations of the language of thought (LOT). Since non-conceptual representations do not have the necessary properties to figure in a classical computational process, Fodor would have to accept that part of the perceptual modules is not explained in classical computational terms. The second horn of the trilemma is the possibility that perceptual modules may only compute nonconceptual representations. This would be a worst-case scenario, since CTM would then not explain how perceptual modules work. Finally, the last horn of the trilemma presents a third possibility in which perceptual modules operate on both non-conceptual representations and representations that are not fullblown LOT. I will argue that this position is inadequate in that it presents the same difficulties mentioned in the first and second horns of the trilemma.

지각적 표상은 비명제적 내용을 갖는가? - 지각적 표상 내용에 대한 개념주의적 접근 -

김태경 ( Kim Tae-kyung ) 한국동서철학회 2021 동서철학연구 Vol.- No.100

개념주의자 맥도웰에 따르면, 모든 지각 경험의 내용은 믿음의 내용이나 사고의 내용과 마찬가지로 명제적 내용을 갖는다. 맥도웰의 이러한 주장은 지각 경험의 내용에 대한 개념주의의 두 가지 핵심 논변으로 이해될 수 있다. 첫째는 지각이 사고(thought) 의 유형 중 하나이므로 사고의 내용과 마찬가지로 개념적이고 명제적인 내용을 담는다는 것이다. 둘째는 우리는 지각 경험의 내용에 접근할 수 있는 개념적 능력을 가지고 있고, 이를 통하여 지각 경험이 무엇을 표상하였는지에 대해 명제적으로 표현할 수 있다는 것이다. 이에 반해, 비개념주의를 옹호하는 크레인은 우리가 지각적 표상내용에 대해 명제적 형태로 표현할 수 있다는 사실이 지각 경험의 내용이 개념적이거나 명제적임을 함축하지는 않는다고 주장한다. 말하자면, 지각 경험의 내용에 대해 보고 (report)할 수 있는 능력은 개념적, 명제적 기술에 불과할 뿐, 지각적 표상이 명제적으로 구성될 수 있음을 함축하지는 않는다는 것이다. 이 논문에서 필자는 개념주의의 두 가지 핵심 논변과 이에 대한 크레인의 반론을 검토하고, 크레인의 논증이 지각의 옳음 조건을 만족시키지 못하는 애매성에 의존하고 있고, 지각 주체의 의식적 접근 가능성을 배제한 논증임을 보일 것이다. 이로부터 맥도웰이 제시한 두 가지 논변을 공격하는 데에는 실패했음을 보일 것이다. 마지막으로 필자는 지각의 표상적 내용은 지각자의 개념적 능력으로부터 독립되어 발생될 수 있으나 이 사실이 지각 경험의 내용의 비개념성 혹은 비명제성을 보여주지 않음을 주장할 것이다. According to conceptualist John McDowell (1994), all the content of perceptual experience has propositional content as well as the content of thoughts and beliefs. This argument is supported by two arguments of conceptualism. The first argument is that perception is a type of thought; therefore, the content of perceptual experience must be conceptual and propositional because thought-content is always engaged with a conceptual capacity which produces propositional content. The second argument is that we are able to conceptually grasp perceptual representational content via a certain type of conceptual capacity, which we can state is ‘what is represented’ in experience. On the other hand, non-conceptualist Tim Crane (2008), argues that we are able to report what is represented in our perceptual states using propositions, but this does not imply that perceptual representational content is provided by the propositions. That is to say, the propositional content of experience that conceptualists hold is just a conceptual description of representational content, not the representational content itself. If Crane is right, then we are not able to clearly see what is represented in our perceptual experience through our conceptual capacities, and this is a serious threat to the two arguments from conceptualism. In this paper, I argue that Crane’s argument fails to succeed in showing that the first argument and the second argument from conceptualism are wrong. This paper argues that empirical facts may show that perceptual representation sometimes occurs without any type of conceptual capacity, but these facts do not follow that the content of perceptual experience is neither conceptual nor propositional.

L1 Lemma Mediation on L2 Conceptual Representation: Semantic Overgeneralization and Conceptual Fossilization

Hyechong Park 한국언어과학회 2011 언어과학 Vol.18 No.2

Grounded on the interconnected view of bilingual lexicon, this study investigates L1 lemma mediation on the conceptual representation of L2 nouns. In order to elucidate L1 lemma mediation through the same translation effect, a two-part lexical judgment questionnaire, which consists of Likert-scale rating for the decontextualized word association and frequency-based sentence completion tasks, was collected from two groups of Korean users of English (i.e., one intermediate level and one advanced level) and one group of native English users which acted as a reference group. In order to explicate the nature of lexical representation from L2 users' own perspectives, recall sessions were followed. Findings reveal the binding power of L1 on L2 mental lexicon. Intermediate users showed a higher semantic overgeneralization tendency, whereas advanced users showed conceptual fossilization in lexical representation. The semantic and conceptual transfer errors of L2 users indicate that a subtle or substantial difference can exist between the conceptual systems of L1 and L2

한문맥(漢文脈)의 근대와 순수언어의 꿈

황호덕(Hwang Ho-duk) 한국근대문학회 2007 한국근대문학연구 Vol.8 No.2

오늘의 한국인은 漢‘文’을 사용하고 있지도 않고 한문의 독해 능력을 가진 사람들은 극히 일부에 불과하다. 한문이라는 서기체계écriture 자체는 이미 문헌학적 대상으로 멀어져가고 있다고 말해 틀리지 않을 것이다. 그러나 한자어 사용에 있어서 실제로 작용하고 있는 것은 권위의 원천으로서의 한문이라는 상위 언어체계임도 분명하다. 전체가 한문투성이의 한문장으로 작성된 「대한민국헌법전문」은 현대 한국인의 사유를 구성하는 ‘개념’의 질서가 중국과 (특히) 일본을 경유한 어휘들에 구성되어 있음을 상징적으로 보여준다. 예컨대, 당대 어휘에 대한 한 보고에 따라면 근대 형성기의 일본계 한자어들 중 82%가 전문어나 학술용어, 정치ㆍ사상 영역의 추상 개념과 같은 사유와 정치의 질서를 직접 구성해 온 언어라는 것이며 무엇보다 이는 한문의 결구력에 의존해 만들어졌다. 나는 이 글에서 근대 개념어=신문명어를 통해 작업했던 두 작가-李人稙과 卞榮晩의 상반된 작업을 비교하는 일을 통해, 근대 개념어가 제기하는 ‘기원’(론)에의 요청과 근대적 언설 공간에 있어서의 ‘효과’의 문제를 다룬다. 우선 이인직의 『血의 淚』의 경우를 통해 나는 이 소설에서 신문명어들만을 추출함으로써 소설의 서사 자체가 짐작 가능함을 보였다. 무엇보다 이 소설은 신문명어들의 연쇄를 통해 일본, 그리고 미국으로 그 공간을 넓혀가는 형식으로 되어 있으며, 이 연쇄는 식민화의 채널을 연상시킨다. 문학의 영역 안에서, 식민주의와 제국주의의 抱合(incorporation)은 창작, 교육, 비평과 관련하여 동기화되었고, 이 자체가 세계사적 과정의 일부였다. 성숙은 문명화와, 문명화는 식민화와 연동되어 있었다. 어떤 의미에서 신문명어는 이 과정을 매개하고 자연화했다. 다음으로 나는 이인직과 대조되는 또 다른 사례, 즉 한글과 국한문체, 한문이라는 다양한 서기체계를 가지고 작업했던 변영만의 어원학적 사고를 논했다. 근대 개념어에 대한 변영만의 생각은 “세계의 何國을 막론하고 절대적의 純土語로만 조직된 국어는 없는 법이다……좀더 ‘어원학적(Etymologically)으로 此를 觀考하’는 일이 필요하다는 주장 속에 그 핵심이 담겨 있다. 일본의 근대 문학ㆍ사상을, 서양이라는 원천과의 모방적 관계(“개인적ㆍ민족적 파산상태”)로 일언이폐지(一言以蔽之)하거나 한국 한문학을 당송팔대가의 복제로서 통박하는 그의 관점은, 동서비교론과 古今文學 비교론 속에서 사산되어 온 번역적 재현의 문제를 다시금 상기시킨다. 어떤 의미에서 일본의 근대 개념사 연구와 달리, 한국의 그것은 생산이나 변용보다는 식민화와 그것을 넘어서려는 순수한 언어≠순수한 민족어를 향한 救濟의 문제와 관련되어 있다. 한국의 근대 개념어는 번역적 재현의 문제보다는, 언어 침식의 문제와 더 갚은 관련을 가진 것처럼도 보인다. 그러나 여기서도 번역의 문제는 여전히 중요한 과제로서 존재한다. 왜냐하면 근대 개념어 연구를 통해 우리는, 근현대 한국어가 지속적으로 갈망해 온 ‘순수 언어’pure language/reine Sprache의 꿈이 결코 한글 안에서는 달성될 수 없는 과제라는 것을 깨달을 수 있기 때문이다. ‘순수 언어’는 한국어 안에서가 아니라 그 밖-그러나 일본어라고도, 한문이라고도, 또 영어라고도 말할 수는 없는 장소에 존재한다. 나는 이 글에서 그러한 전통적 서기체계와 외부성의 개입을 한문맥의 근대라 불렀고, 여기에 구문맥(歐文脈)의 문제를 포함시켜 논했다. 순한글화와 한글로 사유하는 일이라는 과제는 개념의 차원에서는 결코 달성될 수 없는 꿈이며, 오히려 그것이 달성될 수 있다고 믿는 순간 사유는 그 근원을 상실한 채, 근원적 불가능성에 봉착하게 된다. Not only was the Chinese letters being hardly used by the people in Korea, but also there is few people who are able to read the Chinese writing. It might be not an erroneous idea that the écriture itself of Chinese writing is being out of the philological object. It is, however, certain that when using Sino-Korean words, the Chinese letters are the source of authority, being considered to be a superordinate language system. The Preamble of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea, which is drawn up with a single sentence full of Chinese letters, symbolizes the order of a 'concept' constituting the thought of the present Korean has been formed by the vocabulary passed through China and (especially) Japan. For example, 82% of Sino-Korean words of Japanese origin, at the time of modernization formation, is a language which forms itself the order of thought and politics such as technical and academic terms, and abstract ideas in the world of thought and politics, according to a report on the vocabulary at that time. Such modern words were made, depending on the construction¬ability of the Chinese letters. This study is to explore the origin (theory) demanded by the modern conceptual words and the matter of 'effects' in the modern space of discourse by comparing the contrary works of In-Jik Lee and Young-Man Byeon, as two writers who considered modern conceptual words as new civilized ones. Firstly, by abstracting the new civilized words only from 『血의 淚』(Hyul-ei-Noo) written by In-Jik Lee, this study presented the possibility of predicting the narrative itself of the novel. The novel unfolds its space to Japan and then to United States through the series of new civilized words, and the series remind us of the channel of colonization. In the field of literature, the incorporation of colonization and imperialism was synchronized, being related with creation, education and criticism, and that was part of the process of the World History. In a sense, our 'maturity' in novels was liked to civilization and the civilization liked to colonization. The new civilized words, it also means modern conceptual words, at some extent, intermediated and naturalized the linking process. And then, this study dealt with the etymological thinking of Young- Man Byeon, as an example contrast with In-Jik Lee, who worked with various systems of écriture, say, Hangeul (Korean letters), Korean letters with Chinese characters and Chinese letters also. He said, defining the modem conceptual words, "no country in the world has the national language composed of its pure words only…… it needs to think them more etymologically." His attitude in which the Japanese modern literature and thought have an imitative relation to the source of the West ("An individual and national state of bankruptcy) and Chinese classics in Korea is copying of the Eight Great Masters during Tang and Song dynasties in China(唐宋八大家) reminds us of the issue of the translational representation as having been scattered in the comparative theories of the East and the West, and the past and the present. The studies on the conceptual history in Korea have been rather connected, to some extent, to the relief which pursues pure language≠pure ethnic language, overcoming the colonization, than production and modification unlike the studies on the modem conceptual history in Japan. The modem conceptual words in Korea appears to have a more considerable relation with the issue of language erosion than the issue of translational representation. The translational issue is, however, existing as a material task also here, for the studies on modem conceptual words make us understand the dream of a pure language (reine Sprache), as desired eagerly by the modem and contemporary Korean language, which will never be achieved within Hangeul. The pure language is existent not inside the Korean language, but outside the language-it, however, exists in another space than Japanese, Chinese and Englis

1970-80년대 아방가르드 건축가의 건축 드로잉을 통해 본 건축 디자인의 시각 재현방식에 관한 연구

김호정(Kim Ho-Jeong) 대한건축학회 2009 대한건축학회논문집 Vol.25 No.6

Architectural drawing techniques are the result of creative historic efforts to solve the problem of visualization. As architectural design incurs different problems than the making of naturalized image, architectural drawings exhibits different traits from other forms of representation. This study is an investigation on a new form of architectural design representation on the 1970s and 1980s, a period of the emergence of Postmodernism. The objective of this research is to examine how new forms of design representation evolved in response to the conception of the architectural design in Postmodern culture, and how they shaped the design thinking of Postmodern architecture. In Contrast to the conventional drawings, the conceptual drawings of Rem Koolhaas, Peter Eisenmann, Bernard Tschumi, Daniel Libeskind, and Thom Mayne challenge graphic convention, and exploit contradictions and limits of the architectural graphic medium.

『나마스테』에 나타난 타자성의 두 양상

이도흠 ( Do Heum Lee ) 한국기호학회 2013 기호학연구 Vol.34 No.-

I analyzed aspects of diaspora and alterity in Bumsin Park`s novel, Namaste, from two standpoints. The one is alterity rooted in conceptual difference, and the other is alterity in nunbuchoe(Buddha-in-eye)-difference. The conceptual difference is returned to identity finally. Nunbuchoe (Buddha-in-eye)-difference is not returned to identity. This difference is an absolute and ultimate difference, and it can be reached by sensibility and transcendental experience. It makes him to throw away his identity and to reveal self as the other. In the reason of the difference in Buddha-in-eye, the distinction between this and that falls apart, the power, the discourse of exclusion and the violence which held inside of it loose their strength gradually. In the light of alterity in conceptual difference, this novel is a good work. Park, having multi-culturalism and buddhist world-view, not only described objectively the miserable reality of migrant laborers in Korea but also presented a tragic vision. However, he could not reach to the alterity in nunbuchoe-difference, and regarded migrant laborers as the object of mercy. It is the othering of migrant laborers. Park represented hero, Kamil as a very highly good man. Even though Korean break his leg and cut off his finger, Kamil do not hate and blame Korean. Kamil is not a subject as a subaltern but a good other represented by writer. That is the violence of representation. Such writer`s views are in accord with Korean bourgeois`s ideology that they should respect difference as long as migrant laborers are a good other. This work substitutes ethnic contradiction for class contradiction in capitalist society. Existentialist sufferings and various wrinkles and folds of life in contradictory reality are simplified to ethnic problem. Finally, this work solves problems to return to the mythic world, Kailas. The writer, without a keen recognition and confrontation for irrationality of world, looks migrant laborer in the view of conceptual difference and Korean bourgeois ideology. I suggest that the novel about migrant worker should create a character and narrative, and the world of work from the paradigm of the alterity in nunbuchoe-difference.

A study on the Visual Representation of Design Presented in 'Perfect Acts of Architecture' Exhibition of 2001

Kim, Ho-Jeong Architectural Institute of Korea 2013 Architectural research Vol.15 No.2

Throughout the history of architecture, sometimes the main focus of design was determined by a particular visual representation method, and other times a particular form of visual representation method was required by perception of a particular architectural issue or an architectural form or idea. That is why the visual representation method of architects becomes an important means of reading the flow of idea and thinking behind architecture. This study is an investigation on the relation between architectural thinking and visual representation method expressed through the conceptual drawings by avant-garde architects of the 1970s and 80s, a period of the emergence of postmodernism. Rather than proving the objective reality regarded important by traditional architectural drawing, attempts are made to express the design concept in which the project has its base. Such interpretation and explanation regarding the concept become the main interest of the drawing. It is not that the architecture itself was not expressed in the contents, but it may not be the main subject of expression in the drawing. The value of architectural drawing recovers its value as an art work in itself, as a means of communication, and as an important conceptual tool in the design process. It can be seen that the visual representation method in postmodern architectural drawings is breaking free of the traditional objective depiction of matter and is changing and developing as a design tool of the architect.

A study on the Visual Representation of Design Presented in ‘Perfect Acts of Architecture’ Exhibition of 2001

Ho-Jeong Kim 대한건축학회 2013 Architectural research Vol.15 No.2

Throughout the history of architecture, sometimes the main focus of design was determined by a particular visual representation method, and other times a particular form of visual representation method was required by perception of a particular architectural issue or an architectural form or idea. That is why the visual representation method of architects becomes an important means of reading the flow of idea and thinking behind architecture. This study is an investigation on the relation between architectural thinking and visual representation method expressed through the conceptual drawings by avant-garde architects of the 1970s and 80s, a period of the emergence of postmodernism. Rather than proving the objective reality regarded important by traditional architectural drawing, attempts are made to express the design concept in which the project has its base. Such interpretation and explanation regarding the concept become the main interest of the drawing. It is not that the architecture itself was not expressed in the contents, but it may not be the main subject of expression in the drawing. The value of architectural drawing recovers its value as an art work in itself, as a means of communication, and as an important conceptual tool in the design process. It can be seen that the visual representation method in postmodern architectural drawings is breaking free of the traditional objective depiction of matter and is changing and developing as a design tool of the architect.

비개념적 내용에 대한 크레인과 헥크의 입장 ― 비판적 고찰

김영진 동국대학교 동서사상연구소 2010 철학·사상·문화 Vol.0 No.9

내용 이론은 인지적이고 표상적인 심적 내용의 여러 특성을 밝혀내는 일에 관여한다. 이와 관련하여 최근 흥미롭고 중요한 논쟁이 “개념주의 對 비개념주의”라는 명목으로 등장한다. 개념주의는 마음이 갖는 모든 인지적·표상적 내용이 우리에게 주어진 개념적 장치와 능력에 의하여 전적으로 결정된다고 본다. 한편 비개념주의는 위 입장을 바로 부정하면서, 우리의 인지적·표상적 내용이 적어도 부분적으로 비개념적이라고 주장한다. 우리가 갖는 심적 경험의 다양성을 고려해 볼 때 비개념주의가 전적으로 불합리한 입장으로 보이지 않는다. 하지만 난점은 비개념주의를 지지하는 명쾌하고 결정적인 논변을 찾아보기가 여전히 어렵다는 것이다. 이에 비개념적 내용의 존재와 그 의의를 밝히기 위하여 크레인과 헥크가 공유하는 철학적 전략―즉 ‘개념적인 내용’이 무엇인지를 먼저 명시함으로써 이른바 ‘비개념적인 내용’의 특성을 밝히고자 하는 접근법―은 주목할 만하다. 이 글에서 필자는 비개념적 내용에 관련한 크레인과 헥크의 논의를 해명하면서 그들의 철학적 전략이 지닌 한 난점을 비판적으로 논의한다. The theory of content is concerned with pinning down various features of cognitive, representational content of the mind. Recently an interesting, important disputation has occurred in the name of “conceptualism versus non-conceptualism”. Conceptualism takes it that all the cognitive, representational contents that the mind entertains are entirely determined by conceptual apparatus and capacities given to us. Meanwhile non-conceptualism simply denies the claim, and maintains that our cognitive, representational contents are, at least partly, non-conceptual. Considering the varieties of our mental experiences, non-conceptualism appears to be, to some extent, plausible. But the difficulty is that there do not yet seem to be clear-cut and definitive arguments for non-conceptualism. In this respect Cane's and Heck's philosophical strategy for laying out the existence, and the significance, of non-conceptual content, i.e. pinning down the character of non-conceptual content via explicating and specifying what conceptual content could be, surely deserves notice. In this paper, while giving an exposition of Crane's and Heck's ideas of non-conceptual content, the author provides a critical notice of Crane's and Heck's philosophical strategy characterized above.