A FORMATIVE MEASURE OF VERY YOUNG CHILDREN’S PERSUASION KNOWLEDGE

Shasha Wang,Dick Mizerski,Fang Liu,Doina Olaru,Victoria Mallinckrodt 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2016 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2016 No.7

Introduction An individual’s Persuasion Knowledge is his or her knowledge of the persuasive nature of messages (Freisted and Wright 1994). Most adults are assumed to have this knowledge that enables them to be sceptical of persuasive messages, and to incorporate this information in their decision-making about promoted products. Children are viewed as vulnerable to persuasive messages (Nelson 2016) because they have not developed the appropriate knowledge base to be sceptical of messages (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007) and thus unable to discount the claims made by marketers. This lack of ability to be sceptical is argued to lead to “…the vulnerability of young audiences to the negative effects of advertising” (Nelson 2016, p. 169) like obesity, materialism, poor quality of life and higher rates of mortality. Because of the wide acceptance that young children are particularly vulnerable to persuasive messages, advertising targeting children has been banned in several countries and proposed for others (Mizerski et al. 2016; Wang 2016). Many studies about Persuasion Knowledge or Advertising Knowledge (communication research) have been published over the 40 plus years since Ward (1972) first discussed the concept. However, few studies have tested whether Persuasion Knowledge is an antecedent to children’s sceptical responses to persuasive messages. The 11 studies that have tested the link (see Mizerski et al. (2016) for a review) used a wide variety of single item or reflective measures (measures that reflect the construct). They provide inconsistent findings except that the child’s age is positively associated with acquiring knowledge about persuasive messages like advertising or playing advergames. For example, while most researchers assumed or argued a positive link between young children’s persuasion knowledge and their scepticism, Buijzen (2007) and Christenson (1982) failed to find this link. Robertson and Rossiter (1974) reported children’s understanding of persuasive intent (commercials persuade one to buy things) was positively related with young children’s scepticism, but assistive intent (commercials tell one about things) was negatively related. The inconsistent findings of children’s responses to commercial messages may be due to more than the lack of consistent measures. The use of reflective rather than formative measure of young children’s persuasion knowledge may be another reason for inconsistent findings. “Young” children are those under eight years old (Mizerski 1) shashaatperth@gmail.com et al. 2016), but a lack of sufficient persuasion knowledge has been found with children over 16 years old (Carter et al. 2011). Most recent studies have adopted the Freisted and Wright (1994) Persuasion Knowledge Model that is based on the information processing of an adult buyer. Adults tend to have obtained Persuasion Knowledge so their knowledge may be captured with measures that reflect the construct. Young children are in the process of obtaining Persuasion Knowledge. The ability to understand the source of the message and the persuasive intent of the source are often cited as antecedents to having Persuasion Knowledge. These constructs form over time and cause persuasion knowledge (Nelson 2016). Therefore, it should be a formative measure. Measuring social class is a classical formative measure because causal elements like where you live and your profession can’t be accurately calculated for children. Social class forms over time. The use of a reflective measure when a formative measure should be used leads to several problems (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw 2006; Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001), particularly an increase in Type II errors-“false negatives” (MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Jarvis 2005). For example, this means ruling out a causal element of persuasion knowledge when it is causal. This paper will compare existing single item or multi-item reflective measures used with young children, with a formative measure of the Persuasive Knowledge construct. The best way to validate a construct is to test it with external variables empirically and theoretically linked to the construct, including both antecedents and consequences (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001). Three variables, theoretically and/or empirically linked with young children’s Persuasion Knowledge, are tested in a baseline model to assess the external validity of the construct. These variables are age (Ward 1972), responses toward persuasive marketing messages (such as scepticism) and affect toward the persuasive messages (Mizerski et al. 2016; Wang 2016). Therefore, it is expected that the goodness-of-fit measures for the model using the formative measure of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge will provide a better fit to the data than the reflective measures. To further test the formative nature of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge, two additional models are tested. Researchers are responsible to set the weights of indicators of a formative construct, so a formative model with expert knowledge weights is developed (Figure 1). The indicators or elements of a formative construct should be able to reveal different facets so another model with different facets is developed. Consistent findings of the two models and the proposed baseline model will further support the formative nature of this construct. Apart from content validity and external validity, we also test the measures of the construct with another data set (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007) to test the models’ generalisability. The Mallinckrodt and Mizerski study used children from a different cultural background (Australian vs. Chinese young children), but have similar ages and measures of Persuasion Knowledge and external variables. Further confirmation of the structure of the measurement model is provided if the same relationships are found with the second data set. Methodology Sample The population to be sampled are young Chinese children. China was selected because it has the largest population of young children, is the largest market for toys and a children’s toy is the stimulus product in the experimental study. The sample frame is day care schools in a Northern Chinese city of approximately eight million people. Procedure This is an experiment-based study with a control group. After individual exposure to a toy TV advertisement for a “magic ruler” that can be made into many different shapes with a Dinosaur shape shown in the ad, participants were each asked to answer questions. Cartoon pictures of the question options accompanied by verbal statements were used to reduce the possibility of misunderstanding young children’s responses on Persuasion Knowledge related questions. To reduce any effects of young children choosing the first option they see, pictures or options were shown in a random order. Children were told that there is no right or wrong answer, and they could withdraw at any point. Measures Persuasion knowledge was measured three ways; including a single-item measure, a summated-items measure, and a formative measure. Through an analysis and coding of 20 studies that tested the effect of young children’s persuasion knowledge (Mizerski et al. 2016), six items were found to measure the Persuasion Knowledge construct. The single-item measure used is the children’s understanding of the advertisers’ intention to make them ask their parents to buy (parent-buying intent). This was treated as the most important aspect of persuasion knowledge by several researchers (Carter et al. 2011; Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007). A summated-items measure included six items, frequently used in prior scholarly work. The formative measurement model was built using the same six items but by changing the direction of influence, with the causal flow from measures to the construct. Other variables include the children’s scepticism, their belief of false claims made in the ad and affect toward the toy TV advertisement (see Figure). After a CFA analysis with five questions, the scepticism factor score was derived as a standardised measure that followed a normal distribution. Scepticism ranged from -0.59 to 1.35, with an average of 0.07 and SD of 0.68. Belief of false claims (named as “false beliefs”) shown in the TV advertisement indicated that most children did not believe the two false claims included in the ad (84% and 69% respectively). Affect towards the toy TV ad was measured using one question: “Do you like this video?” to which most children (88%) indicated yes. Results, Discussion And Implication Fifty-four different patterns or combinations of the six persuasion knowledge items were found. This pattern show substantial heterogeneity in children’s Persuasion Knowledge, and further illustrates that young children are accumulating or forming their Persuasion Knowledge (Friestad and Wright 1994). In addition, these items have low correlations to one another that are typical of a formative measure. These findings of variability of knowledge levels and weak association between them indicate the potential multiple-dimension, formative nature of the construct of persuasion knowledge for young children. This may apply specifically to young children who are at the stage of increasing their learning abilities and developing or forming their knowledge. No relationship was found in the structural models using the reflective single-item measure and summated-items measure of persuasion knowledge, and the models showed a poor fit. However, relationships were found in the structural model that applied the formative measure of persuasion knowledge, with good model fit (see Table 1). Because a formative measure is supported, we tested the formative nature of Persuasion Knowledge on a previous study’s data (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007). A formative model using that study’s data showed the same relationships between Persuasion Knowledge and its external variables. This consistency supports a formative measure of young children’s persuasion knowledge. Any review of future or past research should note the possible impact of using reflective measures of young children’s Persuasive Knowledge. To generalise the findings more research needs to be done for different product categories and age groups. More product categories, such as food and movies, and age groups could be taken into consideration. While few studies have tested the association of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge to scepticism toward the message, even fewer have tested the link of scepticism to young children’s responses to the advertised product (e.g. like, prefer, choose). Most of these studies do not find a link. If having Persuasion Knowledge doesn’t influence a young child’s desire for the brand, why teach it (e.g. Nelson 2016) or ban advertising because the children don’t have Persuasion Knowledge? Perhaps using a formative measure the link will be found.

EFFECTS OF NATIVE CONTENT APPEAL, AD SKEPTICISM AND WEBSITE TYPE ON ATTITUDES TOWARD THE AD, PEOPLE’S WEBSITE EVALUATION AND PERSUASION KNOWLEDGE

Ana Clara Meirelles Vitale,Sooyoung Cho 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2017 Global Fashion Management Conference Vol.2017 No.07

The purpose of this study is to find out how effective native content can be and how much 1) the web site type (news vs. entertainment vs. social networking site) and 2) the native content appeal (emotional vs. informational) will influence reader’s evaluations about a) the ad/website where the ad is placed and b) reader’s persuasion knowledge. The study also included an individual’s ad skepticism as one of the independent variables, arguing that the level of ad skepticism will influence the evaluations about the ad/website and individual’s persuasion knowledge. The result of the study can be helpful for advertisers to decide where and how to present native content. An online experiment, 3 (website type: news site/entertainment site/Facebook) X 2 (native content appeal: emotional/informational) X 2 (individual’s ad skepticism: high/low) was conducted to estimate the effects of independent variables on dependent variables, such as attitude towards the ad, website’s evaluation and individual’s persuasion knowledge. Introduction One of the newest ways of online advertising is ‘native ad’ or ‘native content.’ This new form of advertising provides companies the opportunity to introduce their products or services in a more natural way via online. Native ads normally match the design of other contents presented in the website and it should be perceived naturally as the rest of the content there (for example, in an online news site, the ad should be presented as news). Since native ads fit into the design of the site and people are there looking for stories to read, they provide higher rates of engagement as well as brand perception. However, there is a possibility of people feeling ‘deceived’ after realizing the story they click to read is no other but advertising. Furthermore, in the case of news websites, there have been instances of disapproval regarding native content. One of the arguments against native content presented in news sites points out that it is not ethical to present ads in the format of news. On the other hand, paid content can be seen as a useful alternative for non-intrusive online advertising which can generate more views among the users. Despite the increase of native content as a new form of advertising, academic study about native content (ads) is still difficult to find. The purpose of this study is to find out how effective native content can be and how much 1) the web site type (news vs. entertainment vs. social networking site) and 2) the native content appeal (emotional vs. informational) will influence reader’s evaluations about a) the ad/website where the ad is placed and b) reader’s persuasion knowledge. The study also included an individual’s ad skepticism as one of the independent variables, arguing that the level of ad skepticism will influence the evaluations about the ad/website and individual’s persuasion knowledge. Native content appears naturally, functioning like the rest of the content in the website. This characteristic makes it difficult for some people to tell the difference between the editorial content and paid content. By including ad skepticism as an independent variable, this study will show how people with high/low levels of ad skepticism will deal with this type of advertising. The result of the study can be helpful for advertisers to decide where and how to present native content. An online experiment, 3 (website type: news site/entertainment site/Facebook) X 2 (native content appeal: emotional/informational) X 2 (individual’s ad skepticism: high/low), was conducted to estimate the effects of independent variables on dependent variables, such as attitude towards the ad, website’s evaluation and individual’s persuasion knowledge. Literature Review Native Advertising and Evolution of Advertorials Native advertising is a method marketers use to present content in an interesting and subtle way on different websites or social media in a way that is almost camouflaging with the other content presented there. According to a IPG Media Lab survey, native advertising presented 53% more exposure than banners and it showed better performance regarding purchase intention, brand closeness and share intention. Native advertising’s origins can be found in what is defined as ‘advertorial’ (a combination of the words advertising and editorial). As we can find different arguments in native ads, we may also find discussions regarding similar topics related to advertorials. Cameron and Ju-Pak (2000)’s research supported that when stories are presented as editorial copy, they showed better credibility than those with a label of advertising. The ideas and main characteristics of advertorials appear today in native advertisements, bringing the advantages of advertorials to native ads. Marketers keep trying to make online advertising reliable and create effective sponsored content. However, as it was discussed with advertorials, when it appears difficult to tell the difference between news content and sponsored content, there is a possibility that the advertising is seen as deceptive (Pike, 2014). Since native content has become a popular online advertising format in reality, it is necessary to study it and the responses generated among the audience members of online news and different websites. Persuasion Knowledge Model & Ad Skepticism An individual’s ability to recognize and evaluate marketers’ persuasion goals and tactics is known as persuasion knowledge. Ad skepticism refers to a critical approach for consumers to evaluate and cope with advertising. Relating to the persuasion knowledge model and native content, one of the most important aspects for marketers is to determine the degree of persuasion knowledge that the target has in the different types of native content or the different website types where it is presented. This study will evaluate how an individual’s persuasion knowledge is affected after being exposed to native content. According to the persuasion knowledge model, we can assume that the more consumers know about the persuasion attempt of an agent, the lesser they are being persuaded. This study examined how the exposure to a new way of online advertising (native content) affects users’ persuasion knowledge. In the meantime, consumers with a higher level of skepticism make it harder for advertisers to find the effective format of online advertising. Consumers with a high level of skepticism may also be more aware of advertising strategies which leads to less positive responses to ads that use subtle persuasive techniques (Obermiller & Spangenberg, 1998, 2000). Previous research has shown that ad skepticism varies depending on advertising formats: banner advertisements present higher levels of skepticism than sponsored content. The present study differentiated persuasion knowledge from ad skepticism. Ad skepticism is regarded as a personal attribute. It is measured in order to find out how participants' level of ad skepticism (high/low) will influence the effects of native content. On the other hand, persuasion knowledge is seen as a way users will cope with advertising strategies. This research examined the effects different native advertising have on a reader’s persuasion knowledge. Research Questions & Hypotheses [RQ1]: Will the effect of native content on site evaluation be different depending on the website type, native content appeal and individual’s ad skepticism? [RQ2]: Will content appeal and website type influence the effects of native content on site evaluation (before/after)? [RQ3]: Will the effect of native content on persuasion knowledge be different depending on the website type, native content appeal and individual’s ad skepticism? [RQ4]: Will the effect of native content on attitude towards the ad (affective/cognitive/behavioral attitude and advertising credibility) differ depending on website type, native content appeal and individual’s ad skepticism? [H1]: Informational native content will show more positive cognitive attitude towards the ad than emotional content. [H2]: Emotional native content will show more positive affective attitude towards the ad than informational content. Research Method An online experiment was conducted in May 2016 in Seoul, Korea. Using a convenient and snowball sample, a total of 359 adult participants aged 18 or older took part in the online experiment. Experiment stimuli were created based on existing brands with high-involvement products (LG G5 mobile phone and CITI credit card). Experimental stimuli were created by the researchers to resemble native content and native ads in news sites, entertainment sites, and Facebook. The format of the contents was adapted from native content published in different sites (news site: /entertainment site: Huffington Post Korea, ). Participants were randomly assigned to one of the 6 cells (3 website types X 2 appeals). First, ad skepticism was measured followed by website evaluation. After each stimulus was shown, attitude towards the native ad, site evaluation and persuasion knowledge were measured. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Despite the growing popularity of native advertising in various online sites, little research has been performed regarding its effects and possible variables influencing the effects of native advertising. This study intended to contribute to find an effective way to create native content and a suitable place to place the native content. The study found significant interaction effects between content appeal and site evaluation (before/after). Also, significant interaction effects on persuasion knowledge were found between website type and content appeal. On the other hand, main effects of independent variables (native content appeal and ad skepticism) showed interesting results. Results of RQ1 showed that a lower ad skepticism and informational content appeal presented more significant effects on site evaluation. In other words, participants with lower levels of ad skepticism were more likely to positively evaluate the site. Also, when comparing the types of appeal, informational native content turned out to be more effective on site evaluation than emotional appeal. However, the online experiment failed to detect a meaningful connection between website type and site evaluation. Significant differences were found in terms of participants’ website evaluation before and after presenting experimental stimuli, native content (RQ2). Contrary to what was expected, emotional appeal presented a bigger mean difference between site evaluation before and site evaluation after. This may be due to participants’ feeling of deception from native content with emotional appeal that leads a lower website evaluation among research participants (Howe & Teufel, 2014). According to Moore and Rodgers (2005), due to high levels of skepticism, online ads are perceived as the least reliable source of credibility. This can explain why content with informational appeal showed more favorable website evaluation over content with emotional appeal. The interaction effect between content appeal and website type on persuasion knowledge was significant. That is, informational appeal showed higher persuasion knowledge for both Facebook and news sites, whereas emotional appeal showed higher persuasion knowledge for entertainment sites. This result is consistent with the literature review presented above regarding website context and online advertising. Meanwhile, the fact that informational appeal increases persuasion knowledge on Facebook can be a subject for further research. Main effects of content appeal and ad skepticism were also found in increasing persuasion knowledge (RQ3). Ad skepticism showed significant main effects on attitude towards the ad over all four categories (affective, cognitive, behavioral attitudes and ad credibility). In other words, participants with lower ad skepticism showed more positive affective/cognitive/behavioral attitudes towards the native content and believed the ad was better. This finding supported previous research on ad skepticism where consumers with low levels of skepticism had more positive responses to advertising (Obermiller & Spangenberg; 1998, 2000). In conclusion, this study showed that participants with a lower level of ad skepticism show more positive reactions to native content than those who tend to be more skeptical about advertising in general. Also, informational appeal appeared to be more effective when compared to emotional content: informational appeal native ads resulted in more positive cognitive/behavioral attitudes towards the native ad and more ad credibility (RQ4).

스폰서십의 설득의도성에 대한 소비자 반응: 광저우 아시안 게임을 바탕으로

임명서,김해룡,이문규 한국마케팅학회 2011 ASIA MARKETING JOURNAL Vol.13 No.2

Over the last twenty years, sponsorship has been used very widely as an important marketing tool that enhances corporate image. Since it has proven to be effective in creating positive perceptions of the company, many marketers have sponsored a variety of consumer-related activities. However, sponsorship has also been criticized as it can be related to ambush marketing and excessive commercialism which trigger negative consumer responses. Unlike the existing study on the sponsorship marketing, this study intends to investigate its negative effects. The study was conducted based on the persuasion knowledge model which was proposed by Fristed and Wright (1994) and investigated consumer responses to ulterior motive of sponsorship marketing. According to the persuasion knowledge model, consumers activate their persuasion knowledge to see the agent's commercial motive; there are several antecedents to the persuasion knowledge activation such as the source familiarity, the marketer's effort and the appropriateness of persuasion. Also, existing studies have pointed out the sponsor-event fit and the sponsor's integrity as crucial factors which influence consumer attitude. By taking a survey of people who watched the 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games, we tried to examine how the sponsor familiarity and the sponsor-event fit as pre-existing variables which have been formed based on the prior consumer knowledges/memories as well as the sponsor effort and the sponsor integrity as situational variables activated based on the specific persuasion episode influenced persuasion knowledge. We also tried to test the potential moderating role of sponsorship type (i.e., official sponsorship versus marketing focused) on the causal path from the persuasion knowledge and the consumer attitude from the perspective of the appropriateness of persuasion. The results show that the sponsor familiarity, the sponsor-event fit, and the marketer's effort have significant effects on the persuasion knowledge activation, and the sponsorship type has moderating role in the sponsorship effectiveness. The theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed. 스폰서십 활동은 기업의 선의의 활동이란 의미에서 기업이미지에 효과적인 설득수단으로 급성장하고 있다. 기존의 스폰서십의 연구들은 스폰서십 활동이 기업의 마케팅 활동에 미치는 긍정적 후광효과(halo effect)를 주로 언급하고 있지만 최근 들어 급증하고 있는 스폰서십의 다양한 형태는 매복 마케팅과 같은 상행위적 윤리문제와 지나친 상업적 의도로 인해 소비자에게 부정적 인식을 심어주고 있기도 하다. 이에 본 연구는 설득수단으로서의 스폰서십 활동에 숨겨진 상업적 의도에 대하여 소비자가 어떻게 반응하는지 알아보기 위해 Friestad와 Wright(1994)의 설득지식모델(the persuasion knowledge model)을 적용하였다. 설득지식모델에서는 에이전트의 상업적 의도 또는 판매 의도적 활동을 간파하기 위해 소비자가 설득지식을 활성화 시킨다고 보고 있다. 이에 본 연구에서는 광저우 아시안 게임에 참여했던 스폰서십 기업에 대한 서베이를 진행하여 설득지식모델을 토대로 설득지식 유발에 영향을 주는 사전적 요인으로서 스폰서의 친숙성, 스폰서-이벤트 일치성과 상황적 요인으로서 스폰서의 노력, 스폰서의 진실성이 설득지식에 미친 영향을 밝히고 설득시도의 적절성 차원에서 스폰서십 유형(공식후원형 vs. 마케팅 중심형)에 따라 소비자의 설득지식이 소비자 태도에 미치는 영향을 분석하였다. 연구결과에 따르면 스폰서의 친숙도와 스폰서-이벤트 일치성 그리고 스폰서의 노력은 설득지식에 매개되어 소비자태도에 영향을 주고 있음이 밝혀졌으며 또한 스폰서십의 유형의 차이는 설득지식이 소비자 태도에 미치는 영향을 조절할 수 있음이 밝혀졌다. 이러한 연구의 결과를 바탕으로 향후 스폰서십 활동을 실시하려는 기업에 대한 실무적 제언을 하였다.

무엇이 설득 지식인가?

남경태(Nam, Kyoungtae) 한국광고홍보학회 2014 광고연구 Vol.0 No.102

프리스타드와 라이트(Friestad & Wright, 1994)가 설득 지식 모델을 제안하고 20년이 지난 현재 이 모델은 다양한 설득 커뮤니케이션 맥락에서 연구의 기본 틀로 사용되고 있다. 설득 지식 모델은 기존의 설득이론들이나 모델들을 통합하는 모델이기 때문에 설득 에피소드에 대한 보다 종합적인 설명을 가능하게 한다. 본 연구는 20년간의 연구 성과들을 검토하여 모델의 정교화를 가로막았던 문제들을 찾아내고 이를 타개하기 위한 연구 접근법들을 제안한다. 우선 본 연구는 설득 지식 모델을 구성하는 주요 요인들의 정의들을 다각도로 살펴보고 이와 관련된 쟁점들을 검토하였다. 또한 본 연구자는 설득 지식 모델이 내포하는 명제들을 구체적으로 명시하여 미래의 연구자들에게 모델 이해의 출발점을 제시하고자 하였다. 더불어, 모델의 개념적 정교화를 위해 차후 연구자들이 해결해야 할 쟁점들은 연구문제의 형식으로 제안하였다. The persuasion knowledge model proposed by Friestad and Wright(1994) 20 years ago has been used for a fundamental research framework in many contexts of the persuasive communication field. The persuasion knowledge model made it possible to explain persuasion episodes more comprehensively because it integrates existing persuasive theories and models. The current study identified problems that might have prevented the elaboration of the model and proposed new research approaches to overcome those problems through the examination of the research achievements for the last 20 years. First of all, the study examined the definitions of the major elements of the model and reviewed issues related to the model. The researcher also specified propositions implied by the persuasion knowledge model and tried to propose a starting point of the model understanding for future researchers. Besides, the researcher proposed research questions that future researchers should delve into to further elaborate the model.

M. Polanyi의 인식론에 함의된 ‘당사자적 지식’의 성격

이진희(Lee Jin Hee) 공주대학교 교육연구소 2009 교육연구 Vol.23 No.-

본 연구의 목적은 폴라니의 인식론(認識論)에 나타난‘당사자적 지식’(Personal Knowledge)의 성격을 규명해 보고자 하는데 있다. 전통적ㆍ분석적 인식론 측면에서의 지식이 명시적이고 객관적이며 주지주의적인 측면을 강조하였다면, 폴라니는 이에 대한 대안으로 ‘당사자적 지식’이라는 새로운 개념을 통해 지식을 설명하고 있다. 그에 따르면 지식은 인식의 주체가 되는 당사자와 분리될 수 없는 ‘암묵적 차원’(tacit dimension)을 지니며 인식주체와 분리된 지식은 지식이 될 수 없다. 폴라니는 당사자적 지식을 주체와 분리되지 않는 암묵적 차원(tacit dimension)인 ‘초점식’(焦點識: focal awareness)과 ‘보조식’(補助識: subsidiary awareness)이라는 두가지 개념을 사용하여 지식획득과정을 설명하는 데 초점식과 보조식은 상호기능을 통해 지식의 획득과정이 이루어지며, 보조식과 초점식은 분리된 것이 아니라, 보조식은 새로운 초점식의 암묵적 뿌리가 된다고 보았다. 폴라니에게 있어서 ‘당사자적 지식’이라는 말은 지식의 발견이나 학습과정에 인식 주체인 당사자의 열정과 헌신을 가지고 참여한다는 말이다. 폴라니는 절대적이며 객관적인 지식을 강조하는 전통적인 인식론에 반대하면서 발견(發見)과 설득(說得)이라는 개선된 인식을 향해 나아갈 수 있는 방법을 제시하고 있다. 발견과 설득은 가르침과 배움이라는 교육활동의 두 축으로 나타낼 수 있으며 교육은 자아(自我) 당사자의 성장을 도모하는 배움과 타아(他我)의 성장을 조력하는 가르침으로 구성된다. 배움은 자신의 것과는 논리적 간극이 있는 인식을 대상으로 좀더 개선된 인식의 진리성을 ‘자증’(自證)하는 과정이며, 가르침은 자신의 인식보다 수준이 낮은 상대를 향상시켜 자신의 인식이 진리롭다는 점을 ‘타증’(他證)하는 활동으로 가르침과 배움은 상호 공조적인 교육적 관계속에서 이루어져야 한다. The purpose of this study is to explicate the nature of knowledge in the view of Polanyi’s theory of knowledge. For this purpose, the traditional and analytical epistemology were examined and Polanyi’s concept of “Personal Knowledge” was interpreted as the essential meaning of knowledge. In the tradional epistemology, which is represented as rationalism and empiricism, “innate ideas” and “sensational data” were considered as the basis of certainty. In the perspecitive of analytical epistemology, certainty and objectivity of knowledge depend on whether it suffice the three conditions such as belief condion, proof condition, and truth condition as the certain one, which clarified the objectivity of knowledge further. However it cannot provide us an adequate explanation of knowledge acquisition in the context of teaching and learning school subjects. On the other hand, Polanyi explains the knowledge through the new concept of “Personal Knowledge”. It is composed of two aspects of subsidiary awareness as a tacit aspect and focal awareness as a formulated aspect. The focal indicates the new knowledge acquired, which can be manifested, however the subsidiary contributes the acquisition of new knowledge as tacit dimension, which cannot be manifested. Tacit dimension can hardly be transferred to the other persons through linquistic interactions. It can be taught and learned by persuasion and discovery. The acquiring process of the personal knowledge with the nature and the relation like this is composed of the process of persuasion and heuristics. Persuasion of teaching is teacher’s activity and heuristics of learning is studen’s activity. Heuristics is to be possibility through persuasion, persuasion was to be itself by heuristics. Therefore, when it is accord with persuasion of teachers and heuristics of student, acquirement of knowledge can completed.

스폰서십의 유형(공식 vs. 매복) 및 스폰서 신뢰도에 대한 소비자 반응: 설득지식 모델을 바탕으로

임명서(Lim, Myungsuh),이문규(Lee, Moonkyu),김해룡(Kim, Haeryong) 한국상품학회 2012 商品學硏究 Vol.30 No.7

많은 기업들이 스폰서십 마케팅이라 불리는 대규모 스포츠 이벤트 참여를 통해 기업의 호의 연상을 심으려 한다. 막대한 비용에도 불구하고 기업들은 공식후원사가 되거나 스폰서십을 획득하지 못하면 매복마케팅을 수행한다. 본 연구는 스폰서십 마케팅 상황에서 설득지식모델(The Persuasion Knowledge Model)을 도입하여 설득지식,정서, 스폰서십의 태도에 영향을 미치는 영향을 살펴보았다. 연구의 결과, 실험1에서는 설득지식모델하에서 스폰서십에 부정적 영향 미치는 요인을 확인할 수 있었다. 스폰서십의 상업성을 인지하는 요인으로 스폰서십의 유형(공식대 매복)은 설득지식유발, 부정적 정서, 스폰서십 태도에 다르게 영향을 미쳤는데 매복마케팅이 공식후원에 비해 높은 설득지식, 부정적 정서 그리고 낮은 스폰서십 태도를 유발하였다. 실험2에서는 스폰서십의 유형 및 스폰서의 신뢰성(높음 대 낮음)의 효과를 확인하였다. 연구결과, 스폰서십 유형과 신뢰성의 상호작용은 부정적 정서 및 스폰서십 태도에서 유의미한 효과를 나타내었다. 실험2 결과의 흥미로운 점은 신뢰도가 높은 기업은 공식후원이 유리하지만 신뢰가 낮은 기업은 공식과 매복마케팅의 효과가 크게 차이가 없다는 것이다. 이는 스폰서십의 유형의 선택에 있어 신뢰가 높은 기업에 있어 공식후원은 바람직하지만 모든 기업이 무차별적으로 공식후원을 취할 필요는 없다는 사실을 말해준다. 이와 같은 결과가 도출된 이유는 소비자가 스폰서의 신뢰성을 후광효과의 차원에서 활용하며 상황적 요인으로 스폰서십 유형을 인지하여 설득지식의 유발을 조절하기 때문인 것으로 보인다. 추가적으로 본 연구에서는 정서와 설득지식의 관계를 밝히고자 했는데, 결과적으로 설득지식과 정서는 소비자의 태도에 영향을 주고 있음을 알게 되었다. 종합하자면, 실험의 결과는 소비자가 스폰서의 신뢰도와 스폰서십 유형에 근거하여 그들의 태도를 형성함을 보여주고 있다. Most sponsors leverage their association with major events through what is known as ‘sponsorship-linked marketing.’ Companies want to become official sponsors even at astronomical costs; companies that do not obtain official sponsorship deal will rush into large sporting events as ambushmarketers. Experiments 1 and 2 were designed to test the antecedents toward persuasion knowledge, emotion, and sponsor responseswith the PK model within sponsorship situations. The results offered empirical evidence as follows. In Experiment 1, we confirmed the antecedents related with sponsorship responses had a negative effect based on PKM. One of the cognitive factors to perceive the commercialism of sponsorship, the sponsorship type (official sponsorship vs. ambush marketing) was provided. Sponsorship type influenced persuasion knowledge differently and ambush marketing increased persuasion knowledge higher than official sponsorship did. In Experiment 2, source credibility (high vs. low) as another antecedent was proved. As expected from previous persuasion research, the interaction effect of sponsor type and credibility influenced on negative emotion and sponsorship attitude, except persuasion knowledge. There were interesting results as revealed by the sponsor credibility and sponsor type interaction effect. We interpreted the results as if it was a valid conclusion that official sponsorship was still considered an appropriate sponsorship type for high credibility company; however, not every sponsor needed to use official sponsorship for events. Because low credibility company did not show meaningful differentiation on consumer's responses between official an ambush marketing. Consumers regulated persuasion knowledgewith sponsor credibility as a halo effect and persuasion knowledge for specific situation-oriented knowledge. Additionally, we examined the relationship between emotion and persuasion knowledge; we tested how induced persuasion knowledge and emotion influenced customer attitudes such as sponsorship attitudes. The results of these experiments, when considered in combination, suggest that consumers formtheir attitudes and emotions based on sponsor type and sponsor credibility.

교육적 오락물의 설득효과 감소요인에 대한 탐색적 연구

김인성(In-Sung Kim),이승조(Seung-Jo Lee) 한국언론정보학회 2015 한국언론정보학보 Vol.69 No.1

본 연구는 교육적-오락물의 효과에 미치는 설득지식과 사전태도의 영향을 조사하였다. 이론적으로 설득지식모형을 채택하였고, 오락 프로그램의 선정성을 지적하는 내용을 미리 보여주어 참여자의 설득지식(저항)을 활성화시켰다. 사전태도는 설득주제에 대하여 얼마나 염려하고 있는가를 측정하였다. 연구는 실험으로 설계되었으며, 실험 참여자들은 설득지식(2) × 사전태도(2)의 조건들 중 하나에 임의로 배정되어, 교육적-오락물을 시청하고 그 내용에 얼마나 영향을 받았는지 평가하였다. 방법론적으로는 명시적 태도와 더불어 암묵적 태도를 측정하여 무의식적인 태도의 변화를 함께 알아보았다. 실험 결과는 효과가 뛰어난 것으로 알려진 교육적-오락물도 수용자의 저항에 부딪칠 수 있는 상황이 존재한다는 점을 보여 준다. 한편 암묵적 태도의 측정에서 설득지식 × 사전태도의 상호작용이 유의미한 것으로 나타났다. 설득주제에 대해 염려하는 정도가 높은 사람들은 낮은 사람들에 비해 교육적-오락물의 영향을 많이 받았지만 설득지식의 영향도 많이 받는 것으로 나타났다. 한편, 명시적 태도에서는 상호작용이 유의미하지 않아 교육적-오락물 연구에서 암묵적 태도 측정의 필요성이 논의되었다. The purpose of this research is to examine the impacts of persuasion knowledge and pre-attitude on responses to a persuasive entertainment education program. Persuasion knowledge model was adopted as the theoretical frame and information about the sensational identity of entertainment program was used to activate audience"s persuasion knowledge(i.e. resistance). Pre-attitude was measured by the degree of concern about the persuasion topic. The experiment was designed by persuasion knowledge(2) × pre-attitude(2) and participants were randomly assigned in one of the conditions and rated their attitude for the persuasion topic. The implicit measure for attitude was included in addition to the explicit measures in order to reveal unconscious attitudinal changes. The results showed that the allegedly effective entertainment-education can confront the resistance of the audience in some contexts. A significant interaction of knowledge × pre-attitude was found in the result of the implicit attitude. The individuals with high concern about the persuasion topic, compared to those with low concern, were more influenced by the entertainment program and also persuasion knowledge. The interaction was not significant on the explicit attitude, which may present the usefulness of the implicit measure in entertainment-education research.

CSR 진정성에서 광고공개의 투명성이 소비자의 설득지식과 충돌할 때: 광고공개, 인플루언서 유형, 소비자 설득지식의 상호작용효과를 중심으로

유은아,최지은 한국광고홍보학회 2024 한국광고홍보학보 Vol.26 No.1

기업이 CSR 활동의 소구를 위하여 인플루언서를 활용할 때 인플루언서가 게시하는 콘텐츠 내 광고공개는 소비자의 설득지식을 활성화하여 부정적인 효과를 유발할 수 있지만, 또한 정보를 투명하게 공개한다는 측면에서 투명성을 제고하는 긍정적인 효과를 유발할 수 있을 것이다. 본 연구는 이처럼 CSR 소구 콘텐츠에 있어서 인플루언서의 광고공개에 따른 투명성과 소비자의 설득지식 간의 충돌을 조절하는 역할로 인플루언서 유형(마이크로 vs 메가)을 제안하고 효과를 규명하고자 하였다. 연구 결과를 살펴보면 먼저 기업의 CSR 소구와 관련하여 인플루언서가 게시한 콘텐츠 내 광고공개는 인플루언서 진정성에 긍정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 즉, 인플루언서가 제시한 CSR 소구 콘텐츠가 광고임을 명확하게 공개하였을 시에 소비자가 지각하는 인플루언서의 진정성이 높게 나타났다. 이러한 효과 과정에 있어서 광고공개, 인플루언서의 유형(마이크로 vs 메가), 설득지식 수준은 삼원상호작용효과를 나타냈는데, 설득지식 수준이 높은 경우에는 메가 인플루언서가, 설득지식 수준이 낮은 경우에는 마이크로 인플루언서가 광고공개를 한 경우 인플루언서의 진정성이 높게 나타났다. 또한, 인플루언서 진정성은 기업의 CSR에 대한 진정성 지각과 기업 태도에 긍정적인 영향을 나타냈다. 이러한 연구 결과를 토대로 본 연구가 갖는 학문적 의의와 실무적 시사점을 논의하였다. Interest in CSR activities and social media influencer marketing is on the rise, but research within these two fields is limited. Therefore, this study aims to identify the impact of using influencers to promote CSR activities. Specifically, we examine the impact of influencer advertising disclosure on influencer authenticity. Additionally, we analyze the three-way interaction effect of advertising disclosure, influencer type (mega vs. micro), and consumer persuasion knowledge on perceptions of influencer authenticity. The analysis revealed a positive effect of influencer advertisement disclosure on consumer perception of influencer authenticity. In other words, when influencers clearly disclose that the CSR appeal content is an advertisement, consumers perceive the influencer's authenticity more favorably. Furthermore, a three-way interaction effect emerged between advertisement disclosure, influencer type (micro vs. mega), and consumer persuasion knowledge. When consumers possess a high level of persuasion knowledge, a mega-influencer's disclosure of CSR appeal content as an advertisement leads to a perception of high influencer authenticity. Conversely, when consumer persuasion knowledge is low, the disclosure of CSR appeal content as an advertisement by a micro-influencer results in a high perception of influencer authenticity. This research demonstrates that consumers respond more positively to influencers who transparently label CSR appeal content as advertising. Moreover, by highlighting the moderating impact of consumer persuasion knowledge and influencer types, this study expands the theoretical scope of CSR and influencer research. It also offers strategic implications for companies seeking to leverage CSR and influencers.

판매원 언어적 메시지의 측면성 효과: 설득지식과 쇼핑목적의 조절효과를 중심으로

윤성욱 ( Sung Wook Yoon ),유명길 ( Ming Ji Yu ),서미옥 ( Mi Ok Seo ) 한국소비자학회 2011 소비자학연구 Vol.22 No.3

메시지 측면성 효과에 대한 연구는 주로 광고 메시지의 영향을 중심으로 수행되어 왔으나, 가장 먼저 고객을 접하고 제품을 판매하는 접점 판매원의 언어적 메시지에 대한 연구는 상대적으로 매우 부족한 실정이다. 본 연구의 목적은 판매원의 언어적 메시지 유형에 따른 판매원에 대한 태도와 메시지 수용의도에 미치는 영향을 밝히고, 그 과정에서 소비자 설득지식과 쇼핑목적이 어떠한 조절역할을 하는지를 규명하고자 한다. 본 연구는 시나리오기법을 통해 매장에서 의류제품을 판매하는 과정에서 판매원의 언어적 메시지, 고객의 쇼핑목적을 조작하고 설득지식수준을 두 집단으로 분류하여 그 차이를 확인한 다음, 이들이 판매원에 대한 태도와 메시지 수용의도에 미치는 영향을 실증적으로 분석하였다. 실험의 외적 타당성을 높이기 위해 판매원 매력성의 영향력을 통제한 상황에서 분석을 실시하였다. 실증분석 결과, 메시지 유형이 판매원 태도와 수용의도에 미치는 영향에서 쇼핑목적의 조절효과는 유의하게 나타났으며, 설득지식은 메시지 수용의도에만 조절역할을 하는 것으로 조사되었다. 본 연구의 결론에는 연구결과의 요약과 시사점, 그리고 한계점을 논의하고, 미래연구에 대한 제언을 하였다. A sidedness effect of the message has been heavily studied in the advertising area. The topic, however, has been relatively ignored in the context of the salesperson who is the primary contact point on the front-line, where the most frequent contact with customers happens. The purpose of this study is to examine sidedness effects of a salesperson`s verbal message and moderating roles of the shopping purpose and persuasion knowledge, after controlling an impact of the salesperson`s attractiveness. Recognizing these phenomena, we proposed differential effects of message type by shopping purpose(purchase / window shopping) and customer persuasion knowledge. Thus, this study examined 1) main effects of salesperson`s verbal message type (one-sided message vs. two-sided message), 2) interaction effects between message type and shopping purpose, and 3) interaction effects between message type and persuasion knowledge. To test these research hypotheses, this study conducted experimental designs. Four hundred ninety-eight undergraduate students were assigned to one of the four experimental groups. Message type and shopping purpose were manipulated as between-subject factors. Five items were used to measure participants` persuasion knowledge. Then participants were classified into high or low group based on their knowledge level to salesperson`s interpersonal marketing persuasion. Dependent variables were attitude toward salesperson and acceptance intention. Referring to prior research, we employed eight items to measure the dependent variables. Seven point Likert-type scales were used to measure the eight items. Hypotheses relating to the dependent variables of attitude toward salesperson and acceptance intention were examined by MANCOVA followed by contrast between treatment groups. The data demonstrate that message types have a significant effect on both attitude toward the salesperson and acceptance intention. In addition, consumers` shopping purpose plays a significant moderating role between the message types and the dependent variables. Furthermore, consumers` persuasion knowledge also shows a moderating effect on the acceptance intention, yet not on the attitude toward the salesperson. The results of this study contribute to the literature as a new attempt to examine the sidedness effect of the message in the sales area. The results of this study suggest various implications for sales encounter by indicating salesperson`s verbal message as an important factor which can enhance customers` positive responses but has been passed over by the previous research. We also indicated the limitations of this study, and suggested the future research directions.

Persuasion Knowledge and the Effectiveness of Media Advocacy in Debunking Korean Tobacco Company Corporate Social Responsibility Programs

백혜진,Thomas Britten Hove 한국언론학회 2020 Asian Communication Research Vol.17 No.1

Guided by the Persuasion Knowledge Model, which focuses on people’s awareness of attempts to persuade them, this study assesses the effectiveness of a media advocacy strategy for debunking the motives attributed to tobacco company corporate social responsibility programs (TCCSR). It does so by examining, first, the extent to which news frames influence perceptions of TCCSR and, second, the mechanisms through which they do so. In South Korea, where the smoking rate is high, experiment data were collected from college students, a demographic heavily targeted by TCCSR. Results show the following: First, a news story framing a TCCSR program as self-serving generated more negative attitudes toward the tobacco company and higher perceptions that its CSR program had an inappropriate persuasive intent than a story framing the program as prosocial. Second, perceptions of prosocial motive TCCSR were negatively related to persuasion knowledge, and perceptions of self-serving motive TCCSR were positively related to persuasion knowledge. Third, persuasion knowledge had a negative impact on attitude toward smoking as a general behavior (ATTs) by way of attitude toward the tobacco company (ATTtc). Last, perceptions of CSR motives had significant indirect effects on ATTtc and ATTs. Theoretical and practical implications for countering tobacco marketing messages are discussed.