The Making of Ethnology and Ethnic Groups in Vietnam

( Yeon Sik Jeong ) 한국세계지역학회 2012 世界地域硏究論叢 Vol.30 No.2

The mainstream view on Vietnam`s ethnic policies tends to emphasize the powerlessness of ethnic minorities vis-a-vis the state and supports the proposition that the mainland Southeast Asian countries have basically no difference in their approaches to ethnic minorities regardless of their differences in their political systems and ideologies. Ethnic minorities are invariably viewed as aliens inside to be subjugated and disciplined so as not to pose any threat to the nation-states. As a whole such a view cannot denied with ease, given the political circumstances under which multi-ethnic countries are placed. But it fails to see the potential differences in state approaches to ethnic minorities which may yield different policy outcomes. This article looks in depth and detail at the history of ethnography in Vietnam and dismantles it to show that it was structured by ideological and strategic needs so as to invent Vietnam`s own classification system. The Marxist and nationalist worldview played a significant role in rendering much weight on the survival of ethnicity. The strategic considerations led the ethnology to be responsive to the voices of minority groups. With these variables at play the Vietnamese ethnographers produced the final outcome, which enlists 54 official ethnic groups. As the highly unusual demographic changes of ethnic groups demonstrate, however, the classification contains a serious problem stemming from the very structure. Since ethnic consciousness may have an overriding effect on granting the status of ethnic groups, many minority groups have changed their identities within a short period of time. Another ramification related to ethnic policies is that minority groups have challenged the existing classification and keep demanding for changes in their status. Since the unification the ideological and strategic factors have gradually lost their effects and the new circumstances bred by reform policies seem to make it necessary to overhaul the Vietnamese ethnology. It remains to be seen if it is ready to be restructured in a way to lay a new ground for state approaches to ethnic minorities in Vietnam.

1. The Making of Ethnology and Ethnic Groups in Vietnam

정연식 한국세계지역학회 2012 世界地域硏究論叢 Vol.30 No.2

The mainstream view on Vietnam’s ethnic policies tends to emphasize the powerlessness of ethnic minorities vis-à-vis the state and supports the proposition that the mainland Southeast Asian countries have basically no difference in their approaches to ethnic minorities regardless of their differences in their political systems and ideologies. Ethnic minorities are invariably viewed as aliens inside to be subjugated and disciplined so as not to pose any threat to the nation-states. As a whole such a view cannot denied with ease, given the political circumstances under which multi-ethnic countries are placed. But it fails to see the potential differences in state approaches to ethnic minorities which may yield different policy outcomes. This article looks in depth and detail at the history of ethnography in Vietnam and dismantles it to show that it was structured by ideological and strategic needs so as to invent Vietnam’s own classification system. The Marxist and nationalist worldview played a significant role in rendering much weight on the survival of ethnicity. The strategic considerations led the ethnology to be responsive to the voices of minority groups. With these variables at play the Vietnamese ethnographers produced the final outcome, which enlists 54 official ethnic groups. As the highly unusual demographic changes of ethnic groups demonstrate, however, the classification contains a serious problem stemming from the very structure. Since ethnic consciousness may have an overriding effect on granting the status of ethnic groups, many minority groups have changed their identities within a short period of time. Another ramification related to ethnic policies is that minority groups have challenged the existing classification and keep demanding for changes in their status. Since the unification the ideological and strategic factors have gradually lost their effects and the new circumstances bred by reform policies seem to make it necessary to overhaul the Vietnamese ethnology. It remains to be seen if it is ready to be restructured in a way to lay a new ground for state approaches to ethnic minorities in Vietnam.

The Relationship of Country Image, Product-Country Image, and Purchase Intention of Korean Products: Focusing on Differences among Ethnic Groups in South Africa

You-Kyung Lee,Charles Arthur Robb 한국무역학회 2019 Journal of Korea trade Vol.23 No.6

Purpose - The purpose of this study is to provide practical implications for Korean companies searching for new market opportunities. From the experimental analysis, the impact of country image on product-country image and purchase intention of Korean products are measured. In addition, this study disaggregates the impacts of country image and product-country image and purchase intention among ethnic groups in South Africa for searching further useful implications. Design/methodology - To examine South African consumers’ country image and product-country image towards Korean products, data were collected between June and July 2019 through an online questionnaire, and 335 questionnaires were used for analysis. Firstly, the multivariate analysis was conducted to examine the general tendency of South African consumers’ perceptions of country image to Korea, product-country image, and purchase intention among three ethnic group consumers. Then in order to verify the country image model and hypotheses of the study, we analyzed the structural models for each of the three ethnic groups and compared the sizes of the path coefficients for each groups. To compare the difference of path coefficients across ethnic groups, configural invariance, metric invariance, and scalar invariance tests were conducted sequentially. Findings - In the black and white ethnic groups, the country image had a statistically significant impact on product-country image, but it did not affect the purchase intention to Korean products. The product-country image showed a statistically significant impact on the purchase intention to Korean products in both ethnic group. However, in the coloured ethnic group consumer, the country image had a significant effect on the product-country image, but it did not affect the purchase intention of Korean products. In addition, the product-country image did not have a significant influence on the purchase intention of coloured ethnic group consumers unlike black and white ethnic group consumers. The results of this study suggest that even though differences in terms of the impact of CoI on PCI and PI were investigated for the sample of white, coloured, and black respondents, the groups seemed to respond in a reasonably comparable manner. Originality/value - South Africa occupies more than 20% of Africa’s total GDP in sub-Saharan Africa and is a hub for Southern African logistics as a hub for Korean companies to enter Africa. However, it is rare to find a study focused on the determinants of consumer behavior in South Africa. In particular, this study disaggregates the impacts of country image and product-country image on consumer behavior across ethnic groups in South Africa. Therefore, this study could provide practical implications for Korean firms which desire to diversify their export markets and pioneer future markets.

발해국의 주민구성에 대한 연구 현황과 과제

노태돈(No Tae-Don) 한국사연구회 2003 한국사연구 Vol.122 No.-

Balhae kingdom(渤海國) was a country that was formed by multi ethnic groups and among those multi ethnic groups, the people of Koguryo(高句麗) origin and Malgal(靺鞨) origin constituted the majority of the Balhae people. The remaining issue is which of those two ethnisities the leading and central ethnic group in Balhae was. Concerning the origin of the royal family, the house of Dae (大氏). Xitangshu(新唐書) and Jiutangshu (舊唐書) transmit different stories respectively, and these two different stories have been parallelled so far in the understanding of this issue. In this process, several hypothesis have been suggested, in which the articles concerned in two historical documents are synthesised. One of the examples is that Daejoyoung (大祚榮) was described as Gaolibiezhong(or Kyryo Byeoljong, 高麗別種) in Jiutangshu (舊唐書), and biezhong(Byeoljong, 別種) here means a group that was ethnically different from the Koguryo people but politically subordinate to it. It has been also argued that if so, Gaoli Biezhong (or Koryo Byeoljong, 高麗別種) in Jiutangshu corresponds to the historical record in Xin Tangshu, in which the Daejoyoung group originally belongs to Sokmal malgal (粟末靺鞨) and is politically subordinate to Koguryo(高句麗). However, this hypothesis does not coincide with the substantial examples of Biezhong (or Byeoljong) used in this period. Biezhong( Byeoljong,別種) means Zhi pai(or Jipa, 支派) or Bie pai (or Byeolpa, 別派), a group of a branch. The second hypothesis is to synthesise the two different stories concerning the origin of the Daejoyoung(大祚榮) group in an eclectic way. This is called the hypothesis of Yemaecmalgal (濊貊靺鞨). Malgal(靺鞨), which has been found in historical documents, and can be actually divided into two Malgal (靺鞨) groups, that is to say, Yilouxi(or Uplugye malgal, ?婁系 靺鞨) and Yemaecgye malgal (濊貊系 靺鞨). Sokmalmalgal (粟末靺鞨) and Baeksanmalgal (白山靺鞨) belonged to Yemaecmalgal (濊貊靺鞨) and they became Balhaemalgal (渤海靺鞨). This hypothesis argues that Yemaecjok(濊貊族) and Malgaljok(靺鞨族) are originally the same, because Malgal (靺鞨) resided in the place of Yemaec (濊貊), such as Buyeo, Dongye and Okjeo. This argument, however, ignores the historical fact of the migration of peoples and attempts to connect directly the two historical records that have temporal gaps with each other and to understand them statically. Therefore, the substantial admissibility of evidence of this hypothesis cannot be accepted. The third hypothesis about the constitution of people in Balhae and its central leading ethnic group is the fusion of ethnic groups, that is, the supposition of 'Balhae-ite'(渤海人) as the central group to lead Balhae. In fact, after the fall of Balhae, the people were clearly divided into Balhae-ite(渤海人) and Jurchen-ite(女眞人). Balhae-ite was the existence differentiated from Jurchen-ite in social and cultural aspects and even in terms of consciousness. In this respect, Balhae-ite existed as an ethnic group. Then the question raised is when this Balhae-ite was formed and how its ethnic genealogy and character can be grasped. For this question, there is a perspective to see this Balhae-ite as succeeding Sokmalmalgal(粟末靺鞨) or Koguryo-ite (高句麗人). In this case, this argument asserts that Bahae was a state of Sokmalmalgal(粟末靺鞨) or Koguryo-ite and its character is laid on the extension of that prior to the establishment of Balhae. This is a non-historical understanding that fails to grasp the character of Balhae dynamically and furthermore, it lacks any substantial evidence to support it. It has been proven by written documents that a part of the Malgal tribe as well as the Koguryo people participated in the establishment of Balhae and this fact is also supported by archaeological research. The only problem is which ethnic group of Koguryo played a central role in the fusion of the two ethnic groups and what extents its fusion progressed in social and regional aspects. This question can be resolved by detailed examinations o

카라차이-체르케스 공화국의 민족-언어상황 연구

정경택 ( Chung Kyung Taek ) 한국외국어대학교 러시아연구소 2021 슬라브연구 Vol.37 No.3

The Karachay-Cherkess Republic of North Caucasus is a republic of indigenous ethnic groups, Turkic Karachay and Adyghe Cherkess. Although the two ethnic groups are indigenous, the number of Karachay is about 40%, which is less than half, and the Cherkess is only 12%, the population of the these two ethnic groups is only over half of the total population. In addition, Russians make up 30%, but Nogay and Abazins, who belong to ethnic groups such as Karachay and Cherkess, account for 3% and 7%, respectively. The three ethnic groups are forming a republic. The Adyghe Cherkess of Karachai-Cherkessia is an indigenous ethnic group, but it is a minority, and it is the most disadvantageous situation to preserve and develop the tradition and language of the Adyghe people, compared to the Kabardino-Balkaria. Moreover, like all the ethinc republics of the Russian Federation, the language of so-called “Titular nation”(Титульная нация) is the state language of the republic, but the status of Russian, the state language of the Federation, is solid and the use area is continuously expanding. In addition to these three languages, Russian language will also be stronger because Abazain and Nogay languages have state language of republic. The division of the Adyghe people due to the establishment of artificial ethnic-territorial boundaries in the Soviet period, the appearance of different ethnic names, the coexistence of several ethnic groups with different origins and languages in one republic, and the still superiority of Russian are common phenomenon in the North Caucasian national republics. In the previous study, I researched the differences between the two indigenous republics, Adygea and Kavardino-Balkariya and in this study, I studied that the Soviet Union formed an artificial ethnic names and Karachay people is Titular nation and that the users of Abazin and Nogay languages were also minorities, but they are the people who make up the republic. Karachay, Cherkess, Avazain, Nogay, and Russians show distictive features in their densely populated residences and use their mother tongue in their homes, but young people speak Russian through education and media and in the city, they are bilingual speakers who speak Russian as lingua franca in communication with other minorities, which is found to be in common with the North Caucasus, furthermore, all ethnic republics in the Russian Federation. In addition, the Russian government’s strengthening of Russian language status and expansion of use, and the strengthening of Karachai’s nationalism and the expansion of the Turkic group are in danger of extinction of Cherkess language faster than other Adyghe ethnic republics. But even Karachay language will be later, but it will not be able to escape the Russianization of ethnic-language. Finally, the study the ethnic-language of the Karachai-Cherkessia should be conducted in addition to the two indigenous peoples, as well as the study of the language of Avazin and Nogay.

迁徙的民族、古朴的女神神话与原生性文化:以中国云南少数民族女性神话为中心

Li lian 한국여성사학회 2018 여성과 역사 Vol.0 No.28

Among the 25 ethnic groups in Yunnan, China, most of them were migrants. The formation of Yunnan ethnic system and its distribution pattern are closely related to migration. The migratory ethnic groups tend to be accompanied by the migratory behavior and it caused their cultural adaption and then the cultural evolution. The culture of migratory ethnic groups in Yunnan not only has evolution but also has new cultural elements which have been created, produced and inherited. It has been keeping the Proterozoic traditional culture and not easily changed. The creation and inheritance are very important to the relocation of Yunnan migratory ethnic groups. From the perspective of female history and female regional cultural history, the study of the relationship between women's problems, such as, in the early stage, the social history, the migration history, the cultural creation and so on. There may be less the direct evidence of writing. Furthermore, archaeological excavation in the obvious directional and representative of the information are relatively poor. Besides, the results are relatively small. Fortunately, Yunnan is still a myth Kingdom which has not yet been collapsing. In the oral history and mythology of some migratory ethnic groups, there are abundant biographies of feminine mythology. In some ethnic groups' migratory epics which have been passed hitherto, there are some explanations about the role and influence of women in the process of migration. From the above materials, the author tries to precipitate some of the cultural evolution and the cultural heritage which related to the female (goddess) cultural creation of historical sites (miracles). 迁徙民族往往会伴随着迁徙行为而导致对自身文化之提升,发生文化演变。云南迁徙民族的文化,既有演变,不断有新的文化元素创造、产生出来,也有传承,始终保持着古老的原生性的传统文化而不轻易改变。对云南迁徙民族而言,这两者都显得非常重要。从女性史和女性区域文化史的角度,对有关云南各族先民早期的社会历史、迁徙历史、文化创造等问题与女性的关系之研究,可能因其文字记载方面的直接证据材料比较鲜见,考古发掘中的具有明显指向性、代表性的资料也比较贫乏,成果比较少。所幸的是,在云南这个至今尚未崩溃的神话王国里,在一些迁徙民族的口传史和神话中,还有比较丰富的女性神话的传述;在某些民族传述至今的迁徙史诗中,还有一些内容叙述了迁徙过程中女性的作用和影响,本文尝试着从这些材料当中缕析出某些与文化演变、文化传承相关的女性(女神)文化创制的史迹(神迹)来。 中文关键词: 云南迁徙民族, 女神神话, 迁徙史诗, 文化演变, 原生性文化, 女性(女神)功绩(神迹)

Identification of Ethnically Specific Genetic Variations in Pan-Asian Ethnos

양진옥,황소현,김우연,박성진,김상철,박기정,이병욱 한국유전체학회 2014 Genomics & informatics Vol.12 No.1

Asian populations contain a variety of ethnic groups that have ethnically specific genetic differences. Ethnic variants may behighly relevant in disease and human differentiation studies. Here, we identified ethnically specific variants and theninvestigated their distribution across Asian ethnic groups. We obtained 58,960 Pan-Asian single nucleotide polymorphismsof 1,953 individuals from 72 ethnic groups of 11 Asian countries. We selected 9,306 ethnic variant single nucleotidepolymorphisms (ESNPs) and 5,167 ethnic variant copy number polymorphisms (ECNPs) using the nearest shrunken centroidmethod. We analyzed ESNPs and ECNPs in 3 hierarchical levels: superpopulation, subpopulation, and ethnic population. Wealso identified ESNP- and ECNP-related genes and their features. This study represents the first attempt to identify Asian ESNPand ECNP markers, which can be used to identify genetic differences and predict disease susceptibility and drug effectivenessin Asian ethnic populations.

한국의 분권과 자치에 관한 역사지리적 고찰: 다문화 8도 지역분권모델을 위하여

옥한석 동양사회사상학회 2019 사회사상과 문화 Vol.22 No.3

This study firstly analyzes the old Korean historical geographical approach about decentralization by rule of multi ethnic groups which is associated with their autonomy, rather than single ethnic and lineage centralized authoritarian rule. Secondly, it reviews periodical changes of administrative boundaries for decentralization and suggests 8 province system that is already validated. Koryo dynasty and previous Kingdoms consisted of multi ehtnic group, which strongly ruled their local areas even though reorganizing local administrative boundary. However, in Chosun dynasty, King sent local governor, in place of him to rule over with his strong centralized power. Through this, the Chosen dynasty created multi lineage groups to be ranked. And this ranking system led a society with an order based on Confucianism. The dynasty reorganized 8 provincial administrative boundary to rule the ethnic groups, weakening the autonomy. Against Japanese rule, awareness of single ethnic was aroused, increasing the independent movement, but Japanese imperial government enforced centralized colonial rule. After liberalization, Korean military government has been always the same. In order to solve the problem of population growth, Korea should move toward a multi cultural society, which is based on 8 provincial decentralized autonomous model, being evidence of foreign labors and family groups. The model effects on civil groups making better harmony of the free market and state in post-modern society. 이 연구는 오늘날 단일민족(單一民族, single ethnic group)의 중앙집권적체제와 달리 한국은 과거 오랫동안 다종족(多種族, multiple ethnic groups) 의 분권전통이 오히려 오랫동안 유지되어 왔다는 점에 착안하여 첫째다수 종족 지배 중심의 분권과 자치에 관한 역사적 고찰과 행정구역 변화를 시대별로 살펴본 다음, 둘째 다문화 사회로의 변동이 실현되기 위해서는 8도의 지리적 범위가 분권의 단위가 될 수 있는지를 구명하고자한다. 이를 위하여 문헌연구를 하였으며 ‘자유와 다문화 8도 지역분권’ 모델을 제시하게 된다. 고려시대와 그 이전의 왕조는 주로 북방계 종족에 의한 다종족국가(多 種族國家)였으며 이들을 중앙의 왕조 속에 흡수하고자 행정구역이 설정되고 개편된 후, 거의 중요 군현에 지방관이 파견되는 8도체제가 조선왕조에 자리 잡으면서 중앙 군주의 힘이 절대적으로 행사되고 지방 군현에자리 잡은 주요 종족들 중 주요 종족(宗族, lineage groups)들이 관료임용제도인 문과와 무과에 합격하는 길을 택하여 자신의 세력을 유지하였기때문에 행정적 품계에 따라 왕권과 병렬하는 관계에 놓이게 되었다. 샤머니즘과 태양족 즉 천손의 후예인 단군 숭배라고 하는 유목토속문화에 길들여진 고대 종족(種族, ethnic groups)은 외래종교인 불교나 유교와동화되어 중앙집권적 체제가 한반도 전체에 영향을 미치는 데까지 천년이상의 시간이 걸렸으며 고대적 유목적 전통이 정착농경문화로의 문화적 변용(acculturation)이었던 것이다. 불교사찰의 가람 배치 요소 중의 하나인칠성단과 산신각이 그것을 말해주며 종족(種族)의 세력 중심의 상징물이었던 서낭당이 불교 유입이후의 향도로 대체되고 조선왕조에 들어와 유교의 서원과 향청이 이를 대신하게 되었다. 불교의 자치세력인 향도가조선 왕조의 성리학적 향약으로 대체될 때까지 지속되었던 것이다. 동화되어 나타난 종족(種族) 세력 내의 다양한 성씨 집단은 조선 왕조에 들어서 지역에 기반을 둔 부계혈통의 종족(宗族, lineage groups) 세력으로서부침을 거듭하게 되었다. 이른바 해동천하라는 이념 아래에서 이루어진 다양한 종족(種族)의 고려왕조는 조선 왕조에 들어와 유교적 이념과 새로운 문자, 이른바 한글에의한 문화적 통일이 시도되었다. 다양한 관습과 문화를 가진 지방호족 중특정 종족(宗族)들은 성리학적인 세계화 속에서 한글의 사용에 따라 의사소통이 보다 더 강화되고 이론화되어 단일민족이라는 의식이 싹트는 계기가 마련되었다. 당시 지방호족들은 말씨가 달랐으며 오늘날 사투리로남게 되었다. 그 후 동시에 종족적(種族的) 우위보다는 특정 집안의 우월감, 바로 종족적(宗族的) 우위와 성리학적 이념의 도덕적 우위가 널리 수용되었고 부계조상(父系祖上)에 대한 제사가 성행하게 되었다. 조선왕조는 주자의 성리학적 이념을 구현한 중앙집권적 지배체제의 완성이었다. 중앙집권적 체제가 실현된 조선시대의 8도제는 상이한 문화와 역사적배경을 담고 있는 지리적 범위로 인식되어 은연중에 지리적인 ‘지역구분’의 단위로 받아들여 질 만큼 중요해졌으며 오늘날의 분권과 자치를위한 단위로 적용해볼 만하다. 또한 가까운 시일 내에 인구 급감을 경험하게 되는 한국은 8도를 단위로 수정된 ‘자유와 다문화 지역분권’ 모델은 분권과 자치를 기본을 한 다문화사회로의 변동에 유익하리라고 본다. 시민사회가 중심이 된 지역공동체...

개혁개방 30년의 민족정책 - ‘민족구역자치제’를 중심으로

조정남 사단법인 한국민족연구원 2009 민족연구 Vol.0 No.38

The original weakness in system of self-government in ethnic area is subordinate relationship between the central government and local officials. When people mention Ethnic problem in China, they easily use that each ethnic group is one of Chinese and ‘Han-zu’can’t separate from ethnic groups. According to ‘The Unity of multioriginal Chines People’, ethnic groups had a complex identity. Complex Identity is ethnic belonging and a sense of Chinese people’s unity which is organized with higher level of Chinese people. And from this, range of self government and it’s limitation, which Chinese legislative system has, come out clearly.

The Home of the Unidentified Ethnic Groups in China-Case Study : Guizhou Unidentified Ethnic Groups’ Today and Tomorrow

Qiaoyang Li,Taixia Cheng 인하대학교 다문화융합연구소 2016 다문화와 교육 Vol.1 No.1