에너지전환 정책의 현황과 쟁점

이준서 ( Lee Jun-seo ) 한국환경법학회 2020 환경법연구 Vol.42 No.2

In order not to exceed global warming by more than 1.5°C, the pathway model proposed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) is to reduce the net emissions of carbon dioxide to 0% by 2050, and this requires a rapid and extensive transition in energy, land, urban infrastructure and industrial systems. It is important to review the contents and limitations and to seek future improvement measures of the energy transition policy through existing legislation at this point in time when a grand transformation is needed to respond to climate change. Although the agenda of ‘energy transition’ was explicitly reflected in the policy at the time when the ‘Follow-up measures to publicize the ShinGori Unit 5 and 6 and Roadmap for Energy Transition’ was confirmed, Greenhouse gas reduction implementation, activation of emission trading market, energy demand management, decentralization of energy, conflict adjustment, reduction of nuclear and coal-fired power plants, and expansion of renewable energy generation proportion are basic directions and contents for energy transition included in the third Green Growth Five-Year Plan, the third Basic Plan for Energy, the eighth Master plan for Electricity Supply and Demand. Despite the establishment of a preemptive energy transition policy in the early stages of the current government, there were many opinions that the public's perception of energy transition through surveys was lower than expected, and it also said the government's implementation of energy transition was insufficient. The issues related to the energy transition policy include weakening the driving force of the decarbonization policy that occurred due to identification of energy transition with ‘abolition of nuclear power plants’, conflict with existing power generation companies centered on the nuclear power industry, and insufficient energy transition system focused on renewable energy, concerns about the reorganization of electricity rates and the dependence of local economies on support systems around the power plant area. Through the limitations and issues of the energy transition policy discussed above, this study suggested the following alternatives: First, it is necessary to clearly set the goal of the energy transition policy to ‘decarbonization’ and to specifically set the implementation measures accordingly; Second, various plans related to energy transition such as Green Growth Plan, Energy Transition Roadmap, Basic Energy Plan, Master Plan for Electricity Supply and Demand, Basic Plan for New and Renewable energy, and Implementation Plan for Renewable Energy 3020 are systematically reorganized and implemented in accordance with the direction of the basic plans; Third, the legal system should be first developed between the current laws such as the Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth and the Energy Act and the Sustainable Development Act, and laws and enforcement decrees should be devised to solve realistic problems, such as climate change mitigation, expansive acceptance of renewable energy, and technology and industry development related to new and renewable energy; Fourth, it is necessary to reorganize the support project for the area around the power plant that focuses on the subsidy at the beginning of construction and gradually decreases the support rate over time, within the scope of that period, taking into account the life of the power plant. In addition, it is desirable to significantly reduce support projects by operators, which increase with the operation of the power plant.

에너지 민주주의의 쟁점과 에너지 커먼즈의 가능성

홍덕화 한국환경사회학회 2019 환경사회학연구 ECO Vol.23 No.1

에너지 전환이 가시화되면서 에너지 전환의 전략과 경로에 대한 관심이 늘고 있다. 이제 누가, 어떤 방식으로 에너지 전환을 추진하는지가 중요한 쟁점으로 부상하고 있는 것이다. 전환의 정치가 확산되고 있는 상황에서 시장 주도의 에너지 전환을 비판하며 에너지체계의 근본적인 재구성을 모색하는 담론으로 에너지 민주주의가 주목받고 있다. 다만 사회운동 속에서 형성되고 있는담론이자 에너지 전환을 정치사회적으로 평가하는 잣대로서 에너지 민주주의에 대한 상상은 하나가 아니다. 본 연구는 에너지 민주주의의 쟁점을 분석하고커먼즈의 시각에서 재해석하는 것을 목표로 한다. 다양한 운동이 결합된 만큼에너지 민주주의는 지역화·분산화, 자유화, 공유화·사회화 사이에서, 나아가투자자·소비자, 노동자, 에너지 시민 사이에서 흔들리고 있다. 이와 같은 상황에서 에너지 기반시설을 커먼즈로 사고하는 것은 에너지 민주주의 내부의 균열을 이해하고 새로운 전환 실험을 모색하는 데 도움이 된다. 에너지 민주주의는 분산형 재생에너지체계로의 전환을 둘러싼 경합 속에서 스케일을 가로지르는 새로운 커먼즈가 생성될 수 있음을 시사한다. As energy transition accelerates and transition politics intensifies, the strategy and pathway of energy transition are becoming an issue. And there is a growing interest in energy democracy as a discourse criticizing market-led energy transition and seeking fundamental restructuring of energy system. However, the imaginations of energy democracy are different from each other as a social movement discourse and a criterion for political evaluation of energy transition. This study aims to analyze the issues of energy democracy and reinterpret them from the perspective of the Commons. As various social movements are connected, energy democracy includes elements of localization, decentralization, liberalization, commoning and socialization that can conflict with each other in terms of transition strategy. In addition, the imagination of the subject of energy transition is diverging between investors, consumers, workers, and energy citizens. Thinking about energy infrastructure as the Commons in this situation helps to understand the critical issues of energy democracy and to imagine new transition experiments. Energy democracy implies that the new commons are being created across the scale of energy infrastructure in the contention of the transition to a decentralized renewable energy system.

재생에너지 확산 이행방안 연구(Ⅱ)

이상엽,이창호,임동순,석광훈,최영웅 한국환경연구원 2021 기후환경정책연구 Vol.2021 No.-

Ⅰ. Introduction 1. Research Objectives and Scope □ Research objectives ○ To seek fundamental implementation measures for increasing the use of renewable energy and achieve the renewable energy goals of South Korea □ Research scope ○ Integrated assessment of the organic relationships between the current issues related to the increasing use of renewable energy - Issues on economic, technical, and social acceptance(incorporating the first-year analysis results) ㆍ Technology development, system stability, sector-coupling considering the final demand sector, environmental power supply plans considering power generation costs, distributed generator plans, power demand management, regional acceptance, etc. 2. Research Description and Implementation Schemes □ Emission forecast in the transition sector and challenges in restricting the power industry ○ (Emission forecast) Reflects the power source mix of the ninth power supply and demand plan (update the first-year analysis results) ○ Power industry restructuring - A review of restructuring the power industry in line with the energy transition era (from the perspectives of contributing to spread of the renewable energy industry and technology and overcoming limitations, such as system constraint problems due to herding in renewable energy and reversing power transmission problems) - Importance of the electricity rate scheme from the perspective of increased application of renewable energy - Power industry restructuring alternatives that can be used in South Korea and characteristics, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative □ Analysis of the application of differential electricity rates by region ○ Analysis of the application of differential electricity rates by region (perspective of power flow to the north, perspective of the energy transition era) ○ Analysis of methods for applying differential electricity rates by region based on power transmission costs □ Analysis of regional economic ripple effects of applying differential electricity rates by region ○ Regional industry-associated effect models for six regions ○ Predicting the total production and added values, including employment and hiring effects in each region in 2030 □ Analysis of projects to be performed (real-time electric rate schemeoriented) in parallel with electricity rate restructuring ○ Case studies of real-time rate schemes used overseas (Ireland and the United Kingdom) ○ Application methods and implications in the Jeju region, a representative region for increasing the use of renewable energy □ Conclusion and policy suggestions ○ Comprehensive summary of the first-year and second-year analysis results ○ Fundamental policy direction for increasing the use of renewable energy and active implementation of the national carbon-neutrality strategy in South Korea Ⅱ. Power Sector Emission Forecasts and Power Industry Restructuring Challenges 1. Emission Forecasts □ Analysis overview ○ Analysis of the facility plans of the ninth power supply and demand plan based on the renewable energy predictions for 2040 - The government’s energy transition policies, early decommissioning of deteriorated coal-fired power plants, and maximum goals of renewable energy will be applied ○ Scenario analysis - Demand alternatives (2), facility alternatives (2), facility use rate alternatives for nuclear power plants(3), four coal-fired power plants(4), and renewable energy alternatives (2) □ Analysis results and implications ○ The achievements of the 2030 goal are uncertain with the renewable energy transition based on the power source mix alone (based on the emission goal of NDC 149.9 million tons and current NDC 192.7 million tons) - If nuclear power plant use is increased to 80% and coal use is limited to 60%, the 2030 goal can be achieved - Greenhouse gas reduction effect is significantly offset by the nuclear phase-out trend - The effects of early decommissioning of deteriorated coal-fired plants will occur after 2030 ○ Policy challenges - Detailed analysis of the reduction potentials for major technical reduction measures is important (CCUS, hydrogen power generation, and carbon-free power technology) - Important to prepare for volatility and uncertainty in the reduction effects caused by demand reduction in the ninth plan ㆍ (Power demand) Prepare for uncertainty based on factors that increase (EV, etc.) and decrease (industry structure and efficiency improvement) demand ㆍ (Power supply) Prepare for regulations on fossil fuel power generation (recovering investments when reduced; cost compensation problem when usage is limited) and expansion of renewable energy deployment goals (climate factor and location problems when the percentage of use is applied) 2. Power Industry Restructuring □ Restructuring direction ○ Consider the trends in and development direction of the global power industry - Regulation mitigation and removal of barriers to entry - Creation of a new ecosystem in the power and energy industry (greenhouse gas reduction, electrification, and smartization) ○ Reflect our power industry conditions and reality - Consider new government roles and regulation mechanisms appearing in the power and energy industry ○ Important to present positive effects in the market aspect for the power supply and demand expected following restructuring - Mitigate obstacles to advancement and evolution of the power industry, such as entry regulations, sales monopoly, and electricity rate regulations - Maintain the adequacy of prices by restoring the original functions of the market, such as the compulsory pool market and CBP method ○ Promote entry of new energy resources and provide a locational signal when new facility enters - Build new energy industries based on renewable energy, distributed energy, resource demand, and new technology - Rebuild a system required to respond to climate change and system variability, such as carbon neutrality - Provide desirable location-based signals through regional differentiation when investing in new facilities for renewable energy. □ Restructuring alternatives and advantages and disadvantages ○ (Alternative Ⅰ) Power generation and competitive sales - Implementation of competitive sales business models (including power distribution) - Allowing operations in both power generation and sales (including power companies) ○ (Alternative Ⅱ) Power distribution sector separation and sales competition - The power distribution sector is separated into public power distribution companies: supply contracts between power distribution companies and power generation companies (wholesale and consignment) - Implementation of competition in the sales sector ○ (Alternative Ⅲ) Power distribution sector separation and sales competition - Wholesale competition in the power generation and sales sectors: Provide contracts between the power distribution companies and power generation companies (wholesale and consignment) - Separation of regional power distribution companies in the power distribution sector ○ (Alternative Ⅳ) Integrated type of power generation, transmission, and distribution - Vertical integration of power generation, transmission, and distribution (one-KEPCO + IPP/CES) - Integration of power generation and distribution (price bidding for power transmission) ○ Important factors to review considering the conditions in South Korea - (Mitigation of existing sales monopoly) The power transmission and distribution sectors are owned by KEPCO but the sales sector is divided, or new entries are allowed. It is important to create a new energy industry business based on the distributed resources on the demand side - (Regional division of sales business) Regional roles are strengthened in the energy industry. It is important to provide price signals that reflect the different investment conditions depending on the regional supply and demand conditions Ⅲ. Analysis of Regional Differential Electricity Rates (Focusing on Power Transmission Price) 1. Need for and Significance of Regional Differentiation □ Need based on the traditional meaning (raised continuously from the past) ○ (Problem of Power Flow to North) Social conflicts such as power transmission network construction and fairness between consumers around power plants and in remote areas. Concerns for power supply and demand. ○ (Power Transmission Network Saturation Problem) Factors that increase electricity rates, such as power transmission congestion costs, loss of power transmission, and increased investment ○ (Problem of National Single Price Scheme) Does not reflect regional signals and causes unfair cross-subsidization between regions ○ Social consensus and acceptance concerns for applying differential pricing by region □ Emergence of need from the energy transition (carbon neutrality) perspective ○ The importance of phased and regional implementation of real-time price scheme from the fuel cost-linked scheme ○ Strengthening measures for factors affecting the power supply cost increase in the energy transition era - System reinforcement and system integration costs resulting from the expansion of variable renewable energy sources, such as rapid changes in SMP and the modification of the payment settlement scheme for variable energy sources. ○ Increased importance of regions in the energy transition era - Increased role and significance of regionally initiated distributed energy sources, strengthening the acceptance of local residents, strengthening of measures for active implementation of region-initiated distributed energy, strengthening of regionally balanced new deals led by regions 2. Analysis Method and Results of Regional Differentiation □ Analysis method ○ Regional differentiation considers the power transmission cost of power transmission and supply facilities in the energy transition era as an important criterion that affects the power supply costs -Power transmission and distribution costs exhibit benefits of avoiding facility construction, system operation, and environmental factors ○ Differentiation schemes by region recover the power transmission and distribution investment by using the results of the equal or differential pricing methods and the power transmission cost distribution method based on the transfer capability between regions - For the differentiation scheme based on the transfer capability between regions, the share of expenses is calculated in terms of regional power generation and demand under the premise of the equal-share principle for costs incurred based on the material supply and transfer capability costs - The recovery of power transmission and distribution investment is analyzed from three perspectives: avoidance of power plants in the capital region, avoidance of load increase, and avoidance of certain lines ○ Key assumptions - (Power Demand and Analysis Period) The ninth power supply and demand plan for the year 2030 - (Regional classification) Capital region (Seoul, Gyeonggi Province, Incheon), non-capital region (Chungcheong, Gangwon, Jeolla, and Yeongnam regions), Jeju region - (Analysis Premise) Past 10 years and the latest trends are analyzed, including facility capacity (based on peak contribution), maximum load (based on maximum power in winter), basic unit rate and unit cost of use (regulations for using electrical facilities for power transmission and distribution, April 2020), facility lifespan (40 years), discount rate (4.5%), facility investment and operation costs (6%), capital recovery factor (CRF, 0.0543), proportion of 154 kV (70%), proportion of power distribution cost (50%), support for laws on compensation and support of areas near power substations (19%), and utilization rate of each line (40% and 50%) □ Analysis results ○ Applying the equal or differential pricing method and regional transfer capacity-based method reveals strong regional differential signals - Particularly, the regional differentiation phenomenon is more noticeable on the demand side than on the power generation side ○ Results of differentiation by region, reflecting investment cost recovery - Power transmission and distribution investment recovery cost (12-15 won/kWh) when the utilization rate of power transmission and distribution facility (345 kV or greater + 154 kV + power distribution) is 50% - Additional costs in each region are based on the average regional increase or decrease in the results of the equal or differential pricing method and transfer capacity-based power transmission cost allocation method - Increase in the rate in each region (capital region: +8.5%, non-capital region: -12.1%, Jeju region: over 100%) compared to the current payment (4 won/kWh: 1.8 won on the power generation side + 2.24 won on the demand side) - The analysis results suggest signals of regional differentiation based on the power transmission and distribution costs ㆍ The current situations are reflected: underpaying in the capital region and Jeju region and relatively overpaying in the non-capital region. A factor that must be reviewed in the electricity rate discussion in the process of increasing renewable energy use regionally in the future Ⅳ. Analysis of Economic Effects of Regional Differential Electricity Rates 1. Analysis Model and Major Metrics □ Analysis overview and analysis model ○ Ripple effect analysis by region and industry using six regions, differential electricity rates, price elasticity of power demand in three main industry categories (agriculture, mining and manufacturing, and service industries), and regional input-output (IO) tables ○ IO as of 2018 in the regional input-output tables of 2015 and reconstruction of regional IO based on national accounts - The 2030 multi-regional input-output tables, which apply the 2030 economic growth by sector (the ninth power supply and demand plan, KDI, KIET) - Estimating the increase in regional electricity rates and average cost of intermediate inputs, regional price fluctuations, and, based on these, changes in the final demand of products and services in each industry ○ Significance of economic ripple effects - Effects based on appropriate regional allocations of transmission costs rather than on effects of usual electricity rate schemes, which consider cross-subsidization, increasing block pricing, and social benefits for renewable energy (effects of forming prices that redistribute the costs of expanding renewable energy deployment and transfer capacity according to the contribution of each region) □ Major Metrics ○ Proportion of power input compared to total output in each region and each industry - In the non-capital region, the mining and manufacturing industry―an industry that consumes a large amount of power―accounts for relatively high proportions: cement (Gangwon), petrochemicals (Chungcheong, Yeongnam), and steel (Yeongnam) - In Jeju, the agriculture sector has a relatively high proportion: 2.5% ○ Primary demand effect by region and industry based on regional differential power transmission costs - In the agriculture, mining and manufacturing, and service industries, the demand decreases by 1.3 billion, 232.1 billion, and 1.28 trillion won in the capital region and 16.3 billion, 35.7 billion, and 408.8 billion won in Jeju, respectively - Demand increases in all industries in the non-capital region (Chungcheong, Yeongnam, Jeolla, and Gangwon regions) where the power transmission price decreases compared to the current price 2. Analysis Results (Economic Ripple Effects) □ Major macro-level metrics ○ By applying regional differential power transmission costs, the total output increases by 5.297 trillion won, added values increase by 2.651 trillion won, and total number of employed people and hiring in the economy increases by 20,420 persons and 15,004 persons, respectively □ Effects by region/industry ○ The service industry in the capital region is a sector in which the negative effect of differential transmission costs is greatest based on the added values and number of employed people (expected decreases in 2030: 974 billion won and 11,324 persons, respectively) ○ Particularly, the Yeongnam region (mining and manufacturing industry and service industry) is expected to have high positive effects (expected increases in added values and number of employed people in 2030: 783 billion won and 8,163 persons, respectively) ○ In Jeju where the differential price increase is the greatest, the added values and number of employed people are expected to decrease in the service sector □ Implications ○ Based on the regional differentiation considering power transmission costs, the added values (based on GRDP) and number of employed people in the whole economy are expected to increase by 0.11% and 0.08%, respectively, compared to these values at baseline ○ The price decrease of a certain element may lead to a decrease in the average cost and, as a result, an increase in demand ○ The regional differential power transmission cost policy can function to correct the inefficient aspect of the current method of impose a single-price scheme nationwide ○ Social consideration is required in from the perspectives of expanding distributed energy sources and the renewable energy supply in the future Ⅴ. Parallel Reforms in Power Market (Focusing on Jeju’s Wind Power Constraints and Power Market) 1. Characteristics of Jeju (dual-constraint problem of isolated system and renewable energy intermittency) □ Increase in output restrictions in wind power generation (77 times in 2020) ○ There is a technical limitation of linking with the mainland through high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) power transmission lines, which are not synchronously linked ○ Important to prepare for flexibility and stability of the power system based on the increase in renewable energy □ Limitations of the current market system ○ Various limitations of power systems, including operational reserves, power transmission constraints, voltage stability maintenance, and thermal constraints are not reflected ○ Continuous increase in the constrained ON (CON) and constrained OFF (COFF) energy payment because of the increase in the combined heat and power, renewable energy, and power transmission constraints ○ There is a need to review the effectiveness of the partial improvements in the current market and ancillary service market 2. Overseas Cases of Isolated Power System (Hawaii and Ireland) □ Importance of analyzing data from Ireland ○ Hawaii is the only place that has adopted the regional differential pricing scheme and depends on large infrastructures such as pumped-storage power plants ○ Ireland reformed the market to respond to fast increases in wind power from the isolation systems (real-time price scheme, various ancillary service markets for variability, etc.) - Ranked second in terms of the proportion of variable renewable energy (VRE) among European countries (expansion of this value to 70% by 2030 has been planned) □ Power markets in Ireland (real-time market and flexible ancillary service) ○ Day-ahead, intraday, and balancing markets are under operation ○ Based on the Delivering a Secure, Sustainable Electricity System (DS3), 14 ancillary services (reserves, frequency response, demand response, etc.) are purchased through combinations of regulated prices and pay-as-bid procedures, and the high renewable energy proportion is supplemented ○ Mitigates risks by introducing the Financial Transmission Right (FTR) market that can hedge price variances between regions caused by power transmission congestion and constraints ○ Real-time balancing market - (System Operator) Instruction to supply based on the physical reports (PN) of the participants. Provides participants with bidding and price negotiation opportunities to adjust the possessed amount - (System Operator) Maintains the balance between the supply and demand and manages the system constraint problems, which determines the balance market settlement price - (Balancing Market Price) This price is determined every five minutes in supply time. The 30-minute settlement price is determined from the average of the five-minute prices - (Effect) Rationalization of HVDC-linked power trading between Ireland and the U.K. Contribution to expanding wind power generation by rationally managing the difference between the supply and demand caused by variable wind power generation in the real-time market □ Implications (Jeju) ○ Adoption of a regional differential electricity rate scheme is expected to contribute to resolving the barriers of entry in the renewable energy-related services and new technology ○ There is a need to prepare the direct inducement schemes and market order that can fundamentally solve the constrained power generation problem that is caused by the expansion of wind power generation in parallel with regional differential electricity rates - Real-time power trading and the ancillary service market for the stable supply of variable renewable energy to the power system without waste is required Ⅵ. Conclusion and Policy Suggestions □ Importance of a sustainable power market structure ○ There is a limitation in the greenhouse gas reduction for carbon neutrality with the support of regulations alone ○ There is a need to select the distributed renewable energy installation size and location based on the normal price and cost □ Social discussion is required for effective implementation of the electricity rate scheme reforms considering power transmission costs ○ It is important to prepare for distributed renewable energy considering the regional requirements ○ In the energy transition era, the issue of regional differential electric rate scheme considering the power transmission costs is more important - The regional differential electric rate scheme is important for correcting the inefficiency of the current nationwide single-price scheme ○ There is a need to review the introduction of competitive power markets, including real-time pricing scheme, along with regional differential electricity rates - It is important to provide economic price strategies to adapt efficiently to the expansion of renewable energy (over or under-supply situations) - Particularly, the optimization of power trading through the HVDC lines that link the Jeju region with the mainland. ○ Public deliberation and social acceptance are important from the perspective of sharing the costs of achieving carbon neutrality

How to find a reasonable energy transition strategy in Korea?: Quantitative analysis based on power market simulation

Song, Yong Hyun,Kim, Hyun Joong,Kim, Seung Wan,Jin, Young Gyu,Yoon, Yong Tae Elsevier 2018 Energy Policy Vol.119 No.-

<P><B>Abstract</B></P> <P>The Korean government announced a new energy transition policy that emphasizes phasing out nuclear and coal energy and increasing renewable energy sources. However, a lack of quantitative research has resulted in disagreements about the most suitable energy transition strategy for Korea. To evaluate the policy, we designed a quantitative analysis that simulates generation scheduling and settlement processes in the Korean power market. We then analyze the economic impacts, conflicts of interest, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the power system’s market price sensitivity to the price of imported liquefied natural gas (LNG) in four energy transition scenarios: i) the government’s new energy transition policy, ii) phase-out of nuclear energy, iii) phase-out of coal energy, and iv) simultaneous phase-out of nuclear and coal energy. Additionally, we evaluated the effects of coal taxation. Based on the power market simulation results, we conclude that phasing out nuclear energy with increasing taxation of coal, or only phasing out coal energy are two reasonable scenarios for energy transition in Korea. The simultaneous phase-out of nuclear and coal energy, which was originally pursued by the government, is inferior to the recommended scenarios in the aspects evaluated. Policymakers should consider these results when developing feasible energy transition scenarios.</P> <P><B>Highlights</B></P> <P> <UL> <LI> Energy transition in Korea can be analyzed by simulating power market operations. </LI> <LI> The phase out coal-fired power is the most effective option to reduce GHG emissions. </LI> <LI> The simultaneous phase out nuclear and coal-fired power is not realistic in Korea. </LI> </UL> </P>

한국 에너지전환의 미래 : 다양한 스케일의 전환 경로 탐색

한재각(HAN, Jae-kak) 한국공간환경학회 2020 공간과 사회 Vol.30 No.1

이 글은 한국의 에너지시스템을 다층적 관점에서 분석하고 다양한 전환 경로를 탐색하는 것을 목표로 한다. 우선 전환연구 및 전환의 지리학에 대해서 개괄적으로 살펴보고, 다양한 전환 경로를 탐색하기 위한 ‘사회기술 시나리오’ 방법론과 네덜란드 에너지전환의 시나리오를 검토한다. 이어 한국의 에너지시스템을 거시환경, 레짐 그리고 틈새라는 다층적 관점을 통해서 분석한 후, 한국의 에너지전환을 위한 세 가지 전환 경로 - 중앙집권적 점진적 전환 경로, 에너지 분권과 자립의 경로, 그리고 동북아 슈퍼그리드 경로 - 시나리오를 개발하고 토론할 것이다. 이 각 전환 경로는 국가적, 지역적, 국제적 스케일의 전환 경로를 보여준다. 이는 한국의 에너지전환 담론이 국가적 스케일에 갇혀 있다는 점을 지적하면서, 다양한 스케일 사이에서의 경합과 이에 대한 분석과 토론은 에너지전환의 달성 가능성을 높이는 데 도움이 될 것이다. This article aims to analyze Korea’s energy system from a multi-level perspective( MLP) and explore various transition pathways. First of all, this paper provides an overview of transtion studies and the geography of transition, and examines the ‘socio-technical Scenario’ methodology and the scenario of Dutch energy transition to explore the various pathways. After analyzing Korea’s energy system through the MLP of landscape, regime and niche, I will develop and discuss three transition pathways for energy transition in Korea: centralized and gradual pathway, energy decentralization and independence pathway, and Northeast Asia Super Grid pathway. Each of these transition pathways represents a national, regional and international scale. This pointed out that the current discourse on energy conversion in Korea is confined to the national scale, and competition between the various scales and its analysis and discussion will help to increase the possibility of achieving energy transition.

The Paths of German Energy Transition: An Institutional Analysis

Heungkoo Lee,Jae-Seung Lee 서울대학교 국제학연구소 2019 Journal of International and Area Studies Vol.26 No.2

The Germany energy transition has been enabled by continuous institutional evolution. The institutional development has continued while party coalitions have repeatedly changed. This study analyzes the institutional progress of the German energy transition under different political settings and extrinsic incidents. Institutional path generation of German energy transition was actualized by political and social responses to the global energy crises as well as the Chernobyl nuclear accident. The participation of the Green Party in the ruling coalition, with the introduction of EFA, played a significant role in launching the energy transition. The reinforcement of this institutional path was formed due to the replacement of the EFA with the EEG in 2000, under a strong political will for sustainable energy development. The Fukushima nuclear accident, and the continued support from the political coalition contributed to the institutional path maintenance for this energy transition. The progressive social and political environment changes in energy transition were prior conditions for setting up institutional strategies. External impacts were prime movers for the implementation of institutional methods or revisions. The institutional durability, in the face of critical alterations of internal and external circumstance, has provided a successful path to energy transition.

한반도 에너지전환 경로와 시나리오 구상하기

이정필(Lee, Jungpil),권승문(Kwon, Seungmoon) 한국공간환경학회 2020 공간과 사회 Vol.30 No.1

한국에서 통용되는 에너지전환과 에너지협력 담론은 상호 융합되지 못하고 있다. 에너지전환은 일국적 차원에서 중앙과 지방의 관계에 집중하고 있는 반면, 에너지협력은 전통적 에너지 안보관에 머물러 있다. 이런 상황에서 북한과 한반도는 에너지전환의 공백상태로 남아 있다. 한반도 에너지전환은 남한 에너지시스템과 북한 에너지시스템의 만남을 넘어서 에너지시스템이 상호교차하면서 형성하는 연대의 공간을 의미한다. 에너지전환 시나리오 작성은 바람직한 미래를 규범적으로 탐색하는 작업이다. 한반도 에너지전환 시나리오를 예비적으로 구상하고 재해석하는 환류과정을 통해 전환 과정에서 발생할 긍정과 부정이라는 이중의 계기를 전망하고, 관련 쟁점들을 도출할 수 있다. 이로써 한반도 에너지공동체 담론에 대해서도 성찰적으로 검토할 수 있게 된다. The discourses of energy transition and energy cooperation in Korea are not fused together. Energy transition focuses on the relationship between the central and the local at the national level, while energy cooperation remains the traditional energy security. In this situation, North Korea and the Korean Peninsula remain empty for energy transition. The energy transition of the Korean peninsula means a space of engagement formed by crossing energy systems beyond the meeting of the South Korean energy system and the North Korean energy system. Designing energy transition scenarios is the normative exploration of the desired future. Through the reflux process that preliminarily envisions and reinterprets the energy transition scenarios of the Korean peninsula, it is possible to anticipate the double opportunity of positives and negatives that will occur during the transition process and to draw related issues. This will allow us to reflect on the discourse on the Korean Peninsula Energy Community.

탄소중립 이행과 정의로운 전환을 위한 법적 과제

이준서(Lee, Jun-Seo) 한양법학회 2022 漢陽法學 Vol.33 No.2

The Framework Act on Carbon Neutrality and Green Growth to Respond to the Climate Crisis (Carbon Neutrality Framework Act), enacted on September 24, 2021, reflects the carbon-neutral policies and legislative trends of major countries, including the recommendations of the IPCC. The Act declared the goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Policies and plans related to climate change response and adaptation, energy policy, and greenhouse gas reduction laid out in the Carbon Neutrality Framework Act were already covered by the Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth, but the concept of the “Just Transition” was interwoven into the Carbon Neutrality Framework Act for the first time. The abolition of coal-fired power generation or the reduction of nuclear power plants―examplary cases of energy conversion― when gradually implemented over a long period of time, would pose no excessive strain during transition. In order to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, however, there is no choice but to reorganize the industrial system at a considerable rate. To implement carbon neutrality within the next 10 to 30 years, countermeasures must be prepared to reduce the resulting impact on industries, jobs, and the local economy. Just Transition is a solution to the need for a rapid clean energy transition. In other words, it means to socially share the burden on the region and industry in the process of implementing the carbon neutrality goal, and to reorganize the industrial system while minimizing direct and indirect damage to related stakeholders. Carbon neutrality and just transition intertwined in the policy is also shown in the US "Green New Deal Resolution", Korea"s "Energy Transition Roadmap", and "The 3rd Green Growth Plan" as they incorporate regional and industrial supplementary measures to lighten the weight the clean energy transition brings. In Carbon Neutrality is a goal that we must achieve to prepare for the climate crisis. Policies related to carbon neutrality, however, will have a negative impact on large-scale carbon emission industries, on energy-intensive industries, and on industries that consume loads of fossil fuels. The Carbon Neutrality Framework Act suggests policies for a just transition, such as the establishment of a social safety net, designation of a special district for just transition, support for business conversion, minimization of risk of asset loss, support for guaranteeing public participation, development of cooperatives, and establishment of a just support center. These provisions are merely declarative and abstract in nature that they lack specific steps to implement policies for a just transition. Energy transition and just transition are to expand the use of renewable energy that does not cause a climate crisis, to enjoy basic energy services for all members of society, to share the burden generated in the transition process socially, and to minimize damage to the vulnerable. In order to successfully achieve a just transition, it is necessary to make an effort to solve the problems of the local economy that is dependent on fossil fuels and coal-fired and nuclear power generation so that a soft landing to a carbon-neutral society can be attained. In addition, it is necessary to prepare for employment conversion through education and training while rendering accurate and specific definition of green industries and green jobs.

도시의 에너지 전환 분석

안정배(Jungbae An),이태동(Taedong Lee) 한국환경사회학회 2016 환경사회학연구 ECO Vol.20 No.1

이 글은 지속가능전환 연구에서 에너지 전환(Energy Transition)의 개념과 분석틀을 도출하여, 서울시의 에너지 정책을 분석하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 도시 에너지 전환의 정의는 다수준 관점을 고려한 성찰적 거버넌스를 토대로 장기적으로 에너지 수급시스템을 회복력을 갖춘 자립 구조로 변환하는 것이다. 서울시의 ‘원전하나 줄이기’ 정책은 수립과 추진에 있어 전지구적 수준의 경관(에너지-기후변화), 국가에너지 레짐, 도시 에너지 정책 실험이라는 니치 수준의 에너지 문제가 고려되었다. 또한 핵에너지와 화석에너지 의존적인 기존 에너지 수급구조를 탈피한 회복력을 갖춘 자립적 에너지 수급구조를 지향하고 있다. 정책의 수립과 추진을 위한 거버넌스에 있어서도 전환장, 전환추진팀, 다중이해당사자 협의체를 구성함으로써, 참여적이고 적응적인 의사결정 구조를 만들기 위해 노력하였다. 그러나 국가-지역사회로의 종적 확산과 타 지역으로의 횡적 확산을 위해 에너지 전환에 필수적인 장기적 접근과 통합적 지식생산이 보다 증진되어야 할 것으로 평가된다. This paper aims to assess "the One Less Nuclear Power Plant policy" of Seoul, using a concept and an analytic framework of energy transition based on the sustainability transition studies. We define energy transition as system transformation from fossil-fuel and nuclear-based energy system into resilient and self-sufficient one that utilizes a multi-level perspectives and the reflexive governance. Empirical analysis suggests that Seoul"s one less nuclear power plant policy reflects global level climate change and energy landscape, national energy policy regime, and urban energy experiment niche level energy transition. The policy also pursues resilient and self-sufficient energy system, emphasizing demand management and renewable energy supply. In terms of governance structure, the combination of transition arena, transition team, and multi-stakeholder group facilitates adaptive and participatory decision-making process. However, Seoul"s energy transition experiment requests longer-term planning and more interdisciplinary knowledge production for further horizontal(to other cities and regions) and vertical (to national and community level) diffusion.

재생에너지 확산 이행방안 연구(Ⅰ)

이상엽,박주영,박종윤,이창호,임동순,석광훈,최영웅 한국환경연구원 2020 기후환경정책연구 Vol.2020 No.-

Ⅰ. Introduction 1. Objective and scope of the research ❏ Research objective ㅇ To implement a plan for renewable energy diffusion with an aim to accomplish the goal of renewable energy availability at the domestic level. ❏ Scope for research for the diffusion of renewable energy ㅇ Analysis of the possible achievements of the government’s targets for renewable power generation capacity with respect to energy transition, and assessment of the correlation between the current electricity market and the development of renewable energy technology as a structural problem of the energy market. ㅇ Environmental impact assessment and analysis for renewable energy acceptance with respect to the Jeju region case study. 2. Research topics and system performance ❏ Goals and issues to be addressed for the implementation of domestic renewable energy ㅇ Assessing the status of the renewable energy targets as proposed in the national plan. ㅇ Summary of the improvement status of renewable energy system initiatives undertaken by the government. ❏ Analysis of current status and tasks in the transformation sector ㅇ Assessment of alternative combinations for energy mix based on the demand and supply of electricity, and subsequent performance analysis in terms of success or failure of the greenhouse gas reduction goals. ㅇ Resolving pending issues to achieve energy transition and greenhouse gas reduction targets. ❏ Investigating the governance of the domestic energy market ㅇ Understanding the influence of the present electricity market structure on the technical development of renewable energy. ㅇ Importance and need for the electricity price and tax reforms and resolving pending issues to accelerate technical development. ❏ Status of the environmental impact assessment of the renewable power generation project and analysis of the disagreement cases: ㅇ Analysis of the theoretical social acceptance of the domestic renewable energy diffusion and the reasons for disagreement for the development of renewable energy ❏ Analysis of the status of the regional case of renewable energy development ㅇ Studying the characteristics of Jeju island, which represents the regional energy diffusion case, understanding the major enforcement situations and the pending issue in Jeju island. Ⅱ. Status and issues of the domestic renewable energy plan 1. Status of the domestic renewable energy plan ❏ The goals for domestic renewable energy development, which included the road map for greenhouse gas emission reductions by 2030, and a basic plan for electricity supply and demand were proposed in national energy master plan. ❏ An initiative was undertaken to set the greenhouse gas reduction goals based on the renewable energy targets of 2050 low-carbon emissions development strategy(LEDS). 2. Renewable energy diffusion tasks and issues ❏ Examining the factors in the energy market system that need step-wise improvement, understanding the foundation of renewable energy dispersal, and technical developments for energy dispersal and social acceptance along with resolving the domestic pending issue needs on a mid/long-term basis. ❏ Understanding importance of resolving each pending issue using a convergent perspective of market-technology-policy-social-innovation. 3. Major domestic trends for spreading renewable energy ❏ Analysis from market-technology-policy-social-innovation perspective 4. Renewable Energy Acceptance Theory: Concept and factors for regional social conflict ❏ Acceptance of renewable energy is a multidimensional approach, which includes technological and social participation. ㅇ The approach is analyzed by dividing it into three categories, which are socio-politics, energy market, and regional society, and previous literature in each category is studied. ㅇ Commitment to environmental conservation, procedural biasness, and biasness in profit distribution represent the conflict factors for the social regional renewable energy acceptance. Subsequent analysis of the theoretical background and related cases on each conflict factor is required. Ⅲ. Current Status and Tasks of transformation sector 1. Estimation of electricity supply, energy mix, and greenhouse gas emissions ❏ Power supply plan and the general energy plan were applied, and the electricity supply was estimated after the planning period based on the characteristics of each power source, such as facility construction and abolition, life span, and utilization rate. ❏ Major analysis results (based on the year 2040) ㅇ Generation was in the range of 636 GWh (based on 8th plan) - 646 GWh (based on 9^th plan). ㅇ Energy mix applied for power supply consisted of 30.7%(RE4030)-36.3% (RE4035) renewable energy. ㅇ Power generation capacity was 95,961-114,522 MW and 198,300-234,188 GWh for RE4030 and RE4035 RE equipment, respectively. ㅇ Based on the 9^thplan/RE4035 greenhouse gas emission was 166.3 MTCO₂(nuclear power plant utilization rate80%, coal utilization rate 60%) 2. Major pending issues ❏ Considerations in facility extension, abolition, and life span extension, and fuel conversion are important issues for the supply sector, whereas reflection in flexibility, such as demand prediction and demand management achievement are essential issues for the demand sector. ❏ Policy execution rate, potential for saving under each energy source, and environmental limitations are important considerations in the renewable energy supply. ❏ Assuming that energy transition will be successfully executed, future projects for controlling greenhouse gas emissions will include the management of nuclear power plants and coal utilization rates. Ⅳ. Status of the energy market governance 1. Technical and institutional issues of energy conversion ❏ Until now, the domestic policies focused on a relatively simple fuel mix selection. ㅇ As the energy sector is governed by the market system and technology system, an integrated approach is required rather than the contradictory approach of non-carbon power supply. Additionally, technology and market system both have a strong path-dependency. ❏ Path-dependency can be overcome by the application of upper-level systems, such as property rights or trade system over the resource dispersal (fuel mix, simple rate system). 2. Case studies of market-institutional approach, and results of international level energy conversion ❏ The USA oil shock of 1974 led to the enactment of Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978), which guarantees a power system based on the industrial combined heat and a fair access to renewable energy power grid. ❏ High-efficiency gas mix using combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT) and General Electric’s F-class (GE F-class) gas turbine technology were commercialized in the 1980s. ❏ The entry of the private power generation companies into the power market introduced a competitive system (USA, EU). ❏ Coal market shares of the gas mix were taken over by nuclear and coal power plant of major developed countries from 2000 to 2010. ❏ Environmental performance of the reorganized Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) power market: ㅇ A linear relationship was observed between the degree of power market liberalization and the degree of initiation of solar energy and wind power development. ㅇ Introduction of competition and separate dispersal patterns contribute to productivity enhancement and CO2 reduction by promoting high-efficiency·low-carbon power producers. ㅇ Competition in the power market promotes conversion of coal to gas and RE. 3. Implications and Challenges ❏ Energy transition requires a sustainable social change rather than adjustments in the energy mix. ❏ Reorganization of the power market structure creates opportunities for consumer participation. ❏ The suggested environmentally friendly electric rate systems are boosted and the inclusion of the electricity price in the current national monopoly market ensures welfare for all. ❏ Policy revisions are needed in the electric fee such that it not only reflects the prime cost and other factors, which guarantee the liberalization of the market participants, but also ensures the national welfare by safeguarding the national income. ❏ To promote power market and energy conversion, problems associated with alienation and resistance by the electricity consumer, power industry, and heavy electricity consuming chemical industry need to be addressed. Ⅴ. Status of the environmental impact assessment and disagreement cases for the development of renewable power generation projects 1. Status of Environmental impact assessment of the renewable power generation projects ❏ Strategic environmental impact assessment, environmental impact assessment, and small-scale environmental impact assessment were considered for onshore wind power, onshore solar energy, and off shore solar energy development projects. ㅇ The consultation rate for 7,489 cases (agreement or disagreement) was approximately 92%. ㅇ Disagreement rate of each energy source type was 2.8%, 1.4%, and 4.9% for onshore solar energy, offshore solar energy, and onshore wind power, respectively. 2. Environmental considerations for renewable energy generation projects ❏ The environmental issues that arose during the environmental impact assessment were related to the location allocation, not to the management of the facilities (offshore solar energy is a regional adaptation problem). 3. Evaluation of the environmental impact disagreement cases of the renewable energy generation projects 4. Pending environmental impact assessment issues ❏ Revisions in policy design are important to minimize environmental damage and social conflicts (dispersal goals and implementation measures for each power source). ❏ Project promotion strategy for deciding the priority locations for development is important. ㅇ Information pertaining to the “saving potential and location map” should be applied. Ⅵ. Regional renewable energy status and tasks 1. Characteristics and significance of the Jeju renewable energy supply policy ❏ Physical conditions about the RE dispersal research ㅇ Jeju region has favorable environmental, and physical conditions for solar and wind energy development. ㅇ Relatively independent electrical power systems: The renewable wind energy development at Jeju demonstrates technical capability and significant policy implementation. - The Jeju case demonstrates problems and solutions for power output limit, which is related to the stability of the system operation of the intra territorial power supply, by proving an increase in the renewable energy development ratio among different electrical power systems. - It provides for maintenance against downturn in sales of wind power operation and discusses power reception based on the discussion between related subjects, cases, and output limit. It finally provides effective policy information. ❏ Policy expertise in RE dispersal research ㅇ Independent energy supply and demand policy of Jeju: The policy is supported by the national long-term vision of renewable energy dispersal. ㅇ An effort has been initiated to establish an independent electricity foundation and to introduce a stable policy for maintaining the supply balance for each energy source type. ❏ Discussion and expertise in the acceptance of the regional renewable energy supply ㅇ Lack of policy revisions is the biggest obstruction for the execution of RE dispersal. ㅇ Conflict between residents and policy revisions also acts as an hindrance for energy dispersal. 2. Jeju renewable energy dispersal status and policy outcomes ❏ The RE capacity of Jeju region shows comparative higher power generation than the national average. ㅇ The average annual increase in the power generation rate was 39.6% during 2012-2017 (installed capacity 603MW, and the rate of installed capacity compared to the national capacity 3.8% in 2012 increased by 2.4%) ㅇ Average annual rate of solar power generation in Jeju was 64.9% (44.9% national capacity), and the wind power generation rate was 21.9% (18.9% national capacity) 3. Major promotion status of Jeju renewable energy ❏ Energy supply and demand showed unbalnce owing to the decrease in the regional power demand and increase in renewable energy supply. ❏ Policy to reduce the curtailment of renewable energy ㅇ Improvement is required to control the renewable energy generation needed for short-term reverse transmission of high voltage direct current (HVDC) line, which connects Jeju with the main land. ㅇ The effectiveness of technical factors, capacity of HVDC, re-examination of CFI practicability, and consideration of alternative ESS plans such as V2G (vehicle to grid) is required. ❏ Public-driven expansion of renewable energy diffusion ㅇ Public administration for Jeju renewable energy resources, particularly, wind power generation includes preventing unsustainable development owing to large site utilization and damage minimization to the landscape, encouraging acceptance of the residents to the power generation facility and subsequent profit-sharing, and minimizing diversions of developmental profit out of Jeju. ㅇ Jeju energy corporation was appointed as the project implementer and was responsible for acquiring public management governance, selection and subsequent construction of a site for wind power generation, and development of a business model, which includes participation of residents (district designation system and profit-sharing system). ❏ Solar power generation business by private investment ㅇ Impetus to the solar power generation business by private investment can be based on the RPS system. ㅇ It should run parallel with a public-led solar power generation business by the initiation of private solar power generation business, finding a suitable site for business, and adaptation. ㅇ Application of a profitable business model, which includes citizenparticipation, and enhancing the existing site elements, such as building rooftop, and parking lot, and inclusion of farming along with the solar power generation are crucial for the development of the business model. ❏ Expansion of citizen’s participation in the regional renewable energy plan WG and related committee ㅇ Citizen participation in the regional renewable energy plan WG and related committees (energy committee, review committee on wind power projects, review committee on the operation of the wind resource allocation fund, environmental impact assessment review committee) is critical. ㅇ Establishment of government-private sector communication channel and a permanent organization, which specializes in conflicts management in the energy dispersal in the province should be initiated. ❏ Increase in monitoring and participation of residents in the policy enforcement process ㅇ This includes execution of a monitoring group where civic groups and residents monitor the procedure and problem associated with the energy policies. ㅇ Additionally, the ombudsman system should be incorporated to investigate any complaints in the region and solve the corresponding problems. Ⅶ. Synthesis of pending issues and main research projects for 2nd year of the plan ❏ Comprehensive analysis on the major pending issues for domestic renewable energy diffusion with an emphasis on the transformation sector, energy market governance, environmental impact assessment, and regional energy (Jeju case) ❏ The major pending issues that need to be addressed are the supply and demand of renewable energy, which are closely connected to the technical and institutional issues, required for the smooth and effective functioning of sub-regional renewable energy businesses. ㅇ Politically and technically stable low-carbon power mix of the transformation sector is important. ㅇ A low-carbon power mix in the transformation sector is possible only if the domestic energy market can support it. ㅇ Modification of the district designation system and business licensing should be prioritized among other regional energy pending issues and should be boosted while connecting with standards for location available for development and consultation guideline of the environmental impact assessment along with revisions for the monitoring system. ㅇ The revision of energy market governance for the normalization of power composition, price structure, technology investment, and participation of consumers is the most fundamental task necessary to ensure domestic diffusion of renewable energy. ❏ During the second year of research, detailed implementation measures and ripple effects due to the implementation of the plan will be analyzed based on the key pending issues deduced from the first year. ㅇ The key pending issues analyzed in first year will be concisely materialized and boosted. ㅇ Considering the importance of the transformation sector, implementation measures will be proposed with an emphasis on the latest developments, such as the 9th electricity supply and demand plan to be announced shortly, the recently released 2050 carbon-neutral vision, restriction in coal development, acquisition of RE dispersal rates, and measures for renewable energy generation variability. ㅇ Owing to the importance of regional energy and energy market governance, the introduction of locational marginal power price system will be proposed in detail and the corresponding economical effect will be analyzed. This will serve as an implementation measure for the structural reorganization of the region and the energy development market.