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신라 당항성의 연혁과 선덕왕대(善德王代) 나당관계(羅唐關係)
최희준 ( Hee Joon Choi ) 한국고대학회 2016 선사와 고대 Vol.47 No.-
Silla’s Tanghang Castle(Tanghang song ; 黨項城) was a gateway to the Tang Dynasty and bridgehead of diplomatic and cultural exchange between Silla and Tang. Originally, the name of the castle had been written as Tanghang Castle(Tanghang song ; 唐項城). in Chinese characters, meaning a “castle on the road to Tang.” Silla organized Namyang region into Tangsong county(唐城郡), with Tanghang Castle as the capital city of the county. The name of the county, Tangsong(唐城), came from the Tanghang Castle, omitting the word “hang(項)” from Tanghang Castle(唐項城). Later, Silla changed Chinese characters of the name from Tanghang song(唐項城) to Tanghang song(黨項城) in the second year of King Sondok(善德王). The new Chinese characters for the castle, Tanghang(黨項), referred to Tangut(黨項), an ethnic group in the west frontier of the Tang Dynasty. Silla’s intention to change the name was to congratulate the Emperor of Tang on Tangut’s submission to his rule. It was a desperate diplomatic measure of King Sondok, who was embroiled in controversy about her legitimacy of succession because of her gender; the king attempted to conciliate Emperor Taizong(太宗), who had boycotted installation of King Sondok, and ultimately pacify the opposition in the political sphere of Silla. During the period of the unification war in the 7th century, Tanghang Castle consistently played a critical role as a gateway to the Tang Dynasty from Silla. Yet after the end of the war, Silla reorganized the system of regional governments on a nationwide scale during the reign of King Sinmun(神文王). In this process, the capital city of Tangsong county transferred to flatland, and evidently Tanghang Castle lost its status as a capital city, and role as a gateway to the Tang Dynasty.
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최희준(Choi, Hee-joon) 신라사학회 2020 新羅史學報 Vol.0 No.50
통일전쟁의 결과로 7세기 후반 신라에는 많은 유이민이 백제와 고구려로부터 유입되었다. 이들은 유입 경로나 성격에 따라서, 첫째 전쟁 과정에서 신라에 투항하거나 망명한자, 둘째 전쟁의 결과 신라군에 생포된 포로, 그리고 셋째 자신들의 터전과 함께 신라에 병합되어 귀속된 遺民 집단 등 크게 세 그룹으로 분류할 수 있다. 통일전쟁 중 신라는 유이민들을 전략적으로 받아들여 활용함으로써 전황을 유리하게 끌어가려 하였고, 전쟁이 종식된 후에는 이들을 효율적으로 관리할 방책을 모색하였다. 이에 따라서 신라는 7세기 후반, 국내외 정세의 변화에 따라서 정책목표를 달리한 백제・고구려 유이민 정책을 단계적으로 펼쳐나갔다. 7세기 후반 신라의 유이민 정책은 크게 세 시기로 구분이 가능하다. Ⅰ기는 통일전쟁이 개시된 660년부터 나당전쟁 발발 직전인 669년까지로, 신라는 전쟁에서 투항하거나 포로로 사로잡힌 유이민 중 고위층 인사를 중심으로 적극 포섭・등용하는 정책을 펼쳤다. Ⅱ기는 나당전쟁기인 670년부터 676년까지로, 백제 故地를 당으로부터 공취한 결과, 새롭게 유입된 백제계 유이민에게 신라의 관등을 일괄적으로 사여해 주는 정책을 단행하였다. Ⅲ기는 통일전쟁 종결 이후로, 유이민 정책이 전시의 포섭책에서 전후의 통합책으로 새롭게 전환된 시기였다. 한편, 이 시기 신라가 고구려계 유이민에 비해서 백제계 유이민에게 차별적인 정책을 폈다는 주장이 일찍부터 제기되어 왔다. 그러나 그 근거들을 검토해 본 결과, 이는 역사적 사실로 받아들이기 어려웠다. 실제로는 골품제에 기반한 신라 사회에서 백제나 고구려 계통의 유이민 모두에 대해서 차별이 구조적으로 이루어졌다. 이 때문에 통일전쟁 이후의 유이민에 대한 통합정책이 다방면에서 이행되었음에도 불구하고 신라인과 유이민의 통합은 유기적인 단계로까지 나아가지 못했다. As a result of the Unification War(三國統一戰爭), many immigrants(流移民) came from Baekje(百濟) and Goguryeo(高句麗) during the late 7th century Silla(新羅). They can be grouped into three main groups. The first group is that surrendered or defected to Silla during the war, and the second group is priso ners who were captured by Silla forces as a result of the war. And the last one is a group of refugees whose territory were annexed to Silla. Silla tried to take advantage of the war situation by strategically accepting and utilizing the immigrants during the war. After the war, they sought ways to efficiently manage the immigrants along with the kingdom’s greatly expanded territory. Accordingly, Silla implemented policies on immigrants from Baekje and Goguryeo in the late 7th century, depending on the changes in domestic and foreign situations. Meanwhile, it has been argued from early on that Silla had differentiated Baekje immigrants compared to Goguryeo immigrants. However, after reviewing the arguments, it was not historical. In fact, in the Silla society based on the bone-rank status system(骨品制, kolp’umche), discrimination was structured for both the Baekje and Goguryeo immigrants. As a result, Silla’s integration policy for immigrants after the Unification War was implemented in many ways, but Silla’s unification of the Three Kingdoms did not achieve organic integration between Silla and its immigrants.
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최희준(Choi Hee-joon) 한국사연구회 2011 한국사연구 Vol.153 No.-
The process of receiving envoys from Tang China during the mid-Silla era can be summarized as follows. First. the king of Silla was made aware of the arrival of Tang envoys within Sill a territory. Thereafter. the king of Silla dispatched a welcome party to meet the envoy and safely escort him to the capital. Once the Tang envoy had arrived in an area on the outskirts of the capital. the king of Silla dispatched another envoy who was responsible for conducting a ceremony called kyoy?ng(郊迎) in which deference was shown to the envoy. The envoy was then put up in a guesthouse located in the capital. Once an appropriate date was selected. the king of Silla received an imperial edict from the Tang envoy. along with symbolic items (sinmul) which he received fromthe Tang emperor. After the envoy had completed his official schedule. he was provided with a memorial essay (p’omun) from the king of Silla as well as gifts to bring back to Tang.In addition to such exchanges of official documents and gifts between the two states. privategifts were also exchanged between the envoy of Tang and the king of Silla. Once all of this had been completed, the king of Sill a took measures to ensure that the Tang envoy returned safely home, travelling the same road he had taken to enter the capital of Silla. This process through which Tang envoys were received during the mid-Silla era was based on Confucian rites. In 651 (5th year of King Chind?k), Silla transformed the Y?nggaekch?n(Office of Ambassadorial Receptions). which was in charge of receiving foreign envoys. into the Y?nggaekpu(Ministry of Ambassadorial Receptions) a move that resulted in the quantitative and qualitative improvement of this institution’s roles and functions. This move was taken as part of the measures taken by Kim Ch’nch’ to introduce a Confucianism-based ruling ideology and establish the institutional basis during the reign of King Chind?k. As a result. a Confucian rites-based reception system was established in Silla for foreign envoys that eventually became accepted as the method of receiving Tang envoys. The Silla-Tang relationship during the mid-Silla period was managed based on the diplomatic principle of tribute-investiture. The king of Silla was viewed as a vassal of the Tang emperor. In this regard. Silla s reception system for Tang envoys was focused on rites related to a vassal state’s reception of envoys from the emperor. The reception system of Silla is characterized by its unique interpretation and management of the Confucian rite system based on its standing as a vassal state.
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최희준 ( Choi Hee-joon ) 제주대학교 탐라문화연구원 2018 탐라문화 Vol.0 No.58
본 논문은 탐라국이 주변국들과 교섭하는 과정에서 이용했던 대외항로들을 탐라사의 맥락 속에서 재검토하는 것에 목적을 두고 있다. 탐라국의 시대에 황해를 중심으로 한 항로는 북부 연안항로와 중부 횡단항로, 그리고 남부 사단항로 등이 있었다. 북부 연안항로는 신석기시대부터 이용된 항로였고, 중부 횡단항로는 5~7세기, 남부 사단항로는 9세기 전반에 각각 새롭게 개척되었다. 탐라국은 5세기 후반 백제와 처음 통교하여 약 200년 가까이 신속관계를 맺었다. 660년 백제 멸망 직후 탐라국은 당과 신라, 백제부흥운동군, 그리고 일본 등 주변국들과 새로운 외교 노선의 정립을 모색하였다. 결국, 679년 신라에 복속한 탐라국은 신라가 멸망할 때까지 이 같은 관계를 유지하다가, 그 대상을 바꿔 925년 고려에 다시금 복속하였다. 탐라국과 고려의 관계는 1105년 고려가 탐라국을 자국의 郡으로 편재할 때까지 지속하였다. 탐라국은 백제ㆍ신라ㆍ고려 등 한반도에 위치한 국가들과의 교섭을 위해서 ‘제주도 북부-추자도-한반도 남서부’를 잇는 連陸航路를 이용하였다. 7세기 중반 당에 1차례 사신을 파견했을 때는 연륙항로를 이용해 한반도 남서부 지역으로 건너간 후, 한반도 서부 연안을 따라 북상하다가 남양만을 거쳐 황해 중부 횡단항로를 이용하여 입당하였을 것이다. 일본과의 교섭에서는 연륙항로를 통해 한반도 남서부 지역으로 건너간 후, 다시 한반도 남부 연안을 따라 이동해 대마도와 이키섬을 지나 규슈 북부지역에 내착하는 연안항로를 이용하였다. The purpose of this paper is to review the sea routes used by Tamla during negotiations with neighboring countries in the context of Tamla. In the days of Tamla, there were “The Northern Coastal Route”(北部沿岸航路), “The Middle Transversal Route”(中部橫斷航路), and “The Southern Slant Route”(南部斜斷航路) in Yellow Sea(黃海). The northern coastal route was the route used from the Neolithic period, the middle transversal route was developed in the 5th to the 7th century, and the southern slant route was newly developed in the first half of the 9th century. In the late 5th century, Tamla first interacted with Baekje for about 200 years. Immediately after the fall of Baekje in 660, Tamla sought to establish a new diplomatic line with neighboring countries such as Tang, Silla, Japan and the government of Baekje Restoration Movement. In the end, Tamla decided to establish a subordination relationship with Silla in 679, and maintained this relationship until the fall of Silla. The relationship between Tamla and Goryeo continued until 1105 when Goryeo unified Tamla into its own county. In order to negotiate with the countries located on the Korean Peninsula including the Baekje, Silla, and Goryeo, Tamla used a route ‘North part of Jeju Island-Chuja Island(楸子島)-Southwest of the Korean Peninsula’. In the middle of the 7th century, when one ensvoy was dispatched to Tang, he crossed the southwestern part of the Korean peninsula using the ‘North part of Jeju Island-Chuja Island-Southwest of the Korean Peninsula’, then went northward along the western coast of the Korean peninsula, and crossed the middle transversal route. In negotiations with Japan, it crossed the southern coast of the Korean peninsula through the ‘North part of Jeju Island-Chuja Island-Southwest of the Korean Peninsula’, and then used the coastal route through the Tsushima(對馬島) and Iki Islands(壱岐島) to the northern part of Kyushu.
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최희준(Choi, Hee-Joon) 고려사학회 2020 한국사학보 Vol.- No.79
본 논문은 신라 영객부의 성격을 명확히 규정하고 사신영접에 있어서 그 역할과 기능을 구체적으로 검토하여 신라의 영접관부에 대한 체계적인 이해를 도모할 목적에서 작성되었다. 영객부는 신라를 방문한 外賓을 영접하는 업무를 관장한 중앙관부로, 6세기 후반 倭典이라는 명칭으로 처음 설치되었다. 이후 621년에 領客典으로 개칭되었고, 651년에는 상급관부인 領客府로 확대・개편되었다. 또한, 759년에 司賓府로 개칭되었다가 혜공왕대에 영객부로 복고되었는데, 이후에는 두 명칭이 함께 사용되기도 하였다. 기존 연구에서는 『삼국사기』 직관지 中에 기록된 內省 산하의 倭典을 영객부와 공존하는 신라의 또 다른 영접관부로 파악하기도 하였으나, 내성왜전은 신라의 사신 영접업무와는 직접적인 연관성이 없음을 확인하였다. 따라서 신라의 빈객 업무 전반을 일원적으로 관장한 관부는 다름아닌 영객부였다. 영객부는 외국 사신의 내방을 확인하고 그 진위 여부를 검사하며, 그가 지니고 온 國書와 國信을 접수하고 그 내용을 국왕에게 보고하였다. 상대국과의 관계설정에 부합하는 차등의 영접의례를 진행할 수 있도록 사신의 等位를 결정하였고, 入京 후에는 사신이 임무를 마칠 때까지 왕경 내 객관에 안치하여 숙식과 접대의 실무를 관장하였다. This paper was written to systematically understand Yŏnggaekpu (領客府) of Silla. In the late sixth century, Silla installed Waejŏn(倭典), the first institution in charge of receiving foreign guests. In 621 AD, they changed Waejŏn’s name to Yŏnggaekchŏn(領客典), which was instructed to supervise the affairs of receiving other envoys visited Silla including the Japanese envoys. In 651 AD, Yŏnggaekchŏn, originally an independent and lower office, was reformed and expanded by promoting it to Yŏnggaekpu(領客府) with two Ryŏng(令 : director) ; this was the result of the series of government office reforms during this period. Later, the name Yŏnggaekpu was changed to Sabinpu(司賓府), again to Yŏnggaekpu, and later two names were occasionally used together. On the other hand, some researchers also claim that the Waejŏn (倭典), which belongs to Silla’s Naesŏng(內省), is a government department related to Yŏnggaekpu. However, this article showed that Naesŏngwaejŏn(內省倭典) was not directly related to the reception of foreign envoys. To conclude, the role was played by Yŏnggaekpu. Yŏnggaekpu was in charge of the overall reception of foreign envoys who visited Silla. It included all the necessary conveniences during the foreign envoys’ stay in Silla after their arrival.
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