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논문(論文) : 명초(明初) 환관(宦官)의 외교(外交) 활동(活動) 실태(實態)3와 그 특성(特性)
전순동 중국사학회 2012 中國史硏究 Vol.77 No.-
宦官是皇帝的耳目。宦官爲皇帝提供情報,所以皇帝和宦官自然形成了 信賴關系。依托這種關系皇帝往往會給宦官一些特別的任務。如皇帝無法 得知的宮城外的政事、官僚的動向、甚至深入地參與外交。 但宦官不是一開始就參與外交的。建立明王朝的太祖洪武帝朱元璋是一 位高度中央集權制的皇帝,對於宦官他實行了嚴려的政策。他指出漢·唐代 的宦官的錯誤,鑒於前車之鑒他告誡後代對宦官要警戒。在那種情形下明 初派往外國的使者主要是朝臣們。朝臣中大部分是地位比較低的行人。 但是無論是朝臣還是行人的出使都存在一定的局限性,其局限性表現在 出使外國的行人不能流利的使用使國的語言。因派出使者中的行人不能流 利地用使國的語言進行溝通,這就導致兩國間交流出現了問題。 對於外交官來說,語言必不可少的要素。爲了解決語言不通的問題洪武 帝設立了專門負責飜譯與語譯職位,這個職位叫"通事"。通事當中大部分 是歸於明朝的蒙古人、新疆人和善於西域語言的人。洪武15年1382年)還 撰寫了用漢語對照周邊國家語言的"華夷譯語"。 永樂帝年間因和周邊少數民族與附屬國之間的往來增多,專門設立了飜 譯公文書的``四夷館``和負責與外國使者交流、外國語敎育的``會同館``。 之後明初出使外國使者由原來的朝臣逐步替換成了宦官外交。這種變化 不只是因爲朝臣使者語言交流的原因還有就是對朝臣們的不信認。明朝建 國初無論是洪武帝還是永樂帝對大臣的信認度遠遠沒有對宦官的信認度 高,致使出使國外的事務中皇帝的心腹宦官代替了朝臣。因爲皇帝們認爲 宦官只會單一執行任務而不會增强自已的勢力。所以洪武帝能輕易控制宦官,倂在洪武帝後半時期宦官出使增加흔多, 永樂帝時期重用宦官,出使朝鮮、日本、安南、東南亞、西域等國家。 明初開始周圍的外藩和外族供給了흔多宦官,其中朝鮮、安南、蒙古和 西域的宦官較多,讓這些宦官作爲使臣派往出身國,是因爲語言上沒有障碍、風俗習慣上的矛盾,這樣可以更爲圓滿地完成任務。而且宦官作爲天 子的使臣,讓他們的出使海外可以起到公私倂任的效果,所以比起派遣朝 臣,派遣這些宦官效率會更高。 宦官外交大體分爲兩種:一是掌管市舶司,령一個是直接作爲使節派往海外。 市舶司是負責管理公共對外事務的官廳,永樂年間宦官開始掌管市舶 司。市舶司中的市舶太監掌管著通過港口進來的朝貢貿易,這就使得宦官 勢力日益强大。去這些事物,冊封周圍蜀國、上諭、下傳禦賜品、迎送外 國使節以及海外物品都是宦官所負責的事物。 明朝宦官外交對國內政治有以下幾種特性: 首先,維持了明朝和周圍國家朝貢、冊封的關系,幇助形成了以明朝爲 中心的中華主義世界秩序。 其次,形成了宦官對外政治幹預到國內政治幹預的轉換。因頻繁的出使 國外,宦官漸漸從對外政治幹預轉換爲了幹預國內問題,而這就成爲了宦 官幹政的점脚石,可以說宦官幹政的第一步是從頻繁的出使開始的,特別 是在永樂年間,掌管擔任外國事物的市舶司就意味著宦官幹預國內政治。 最後,宦官外交維持和發展了和周邊國家的友好感情。特別是永樂年 間,接受朝貢的疆域包含朝鮮、日本、安南、東南亞、西域等地區,當時 宦官出使地域的廣泛性、出使的次數都是其他朝代所不能比擬的。 령一方面,永樂帝也在壓制宦官勢力的堀起。永樂十年"禁中官幹預有司 政事" 嚴令禁止朝中宦官幹預政治。可以看出永樂帝雖信用宦官,但也在 極力壓制宦官勢力的堀起。雖然永樂帝在靖難之變時受到了宦官的幇助因 而重用宦官,但是時時警誡著宦官幹政。雖然明初頒布了흔多禁止宦官幹 政的法令,但是宦官頻繁出使以及監管市舶司仍爲宦官的權利最重助長了 宦官幹預國內政治的權利。可以說明初宦官外交具有兩面性,雖然宦官外交對外有一定的弊端,但 是促進了和周邊國家的友好交流與發展,對內打開了宦官幹政的先河。
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전순동 중국사학회 2010 中國史硏究 Vol.69 No.-
我以明初洪武、永樂時期爲中心考察了明初學校敎育的普及及其內容以及其政治社會功能. 明代由初期開始其學校敎育體系就已較爲完善, 從地方到中央, 從兒童到成人, 全被納入尨大的敎育網, 有效地維護了中央集權的君主獨裁體制. 特別是明初太祖洪武帝和成祖永樂帝吸納了無數知識分子士大夫階層, 以他們爲根基維護儒敎社會秩序, 進而爲使學校成爲官吏産出基地, 十分重視學校敎育. 其結果, 京師有國子監, 各府州縣有府學、州學、縣學, 軍衛有衛學, 鄕村有社學, 此外還有其他特殊專業學校, 設宗學、三氏學、醫學、陰陽學、內書堂等, 在京鄕各地有多種學校. 因而明代學校十分興隆, 達到了"無地而不設之學, 無人而不納之敎……此明代學校之盛, 唐宋以來所不及也" 的程度. 這些學校大體上具有公學性質, 具有私學性質的書院在明初병未能得到發展. 學校之所以如此興隆, 當然有重視學校敎育、敎官專心從事學校敎育、給學生以優免요役的特權使之彙集到學校來等對敎官和學生的政策性關照起了一定作用, 此外書籍、筆墨的普及也爲敎育的發展做出了一定貢獻. 明初廣爲普及的學校敎育以儒敎(朱子學)敎育內容爲其基本筐架. 병在國子監實行升堂法、積分法、歷事法等, 具有濃厚的培養實用人才的性質, 而地方儒學則爲兼具敎化民衆功能的敎育機關. 明初在中央和地方廣爲普及的學校具有培養人才的功能、敎化善俗的功能、制造輿論及行政咨詢的功能、對邊境及周邊國家進行敎化及招撫的功能等. 明初洪武和永樂時期, 王朝使有能力的人才彙集到學校, 把具有儒敎理念的人物官僚化, 從而鞏固以皇帝爲頂點的中央集權官僚國家. 與此同時, 明朝學校敎育在恢複傳統禮治和敎化方面取得了成效. 而且地方府州縣學雖爲培養官吏的義務敎育機關, 但同時具有濃厚的以府州縣學爲據點控制、敎化在鄕地主知識分子及鄕村社會的性質.
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일제강점기 청주 여선교사 로간 부인의 교육활동과 그녀의 기념비
전순동 충북대학교 중원문화연구소 2023 중원문화연구 Vol.31 No.-
This study explores the educational initiatives led by Mrs. Logan and her commemorative monument in Cheongju during the Japanese colonial era. Missionary Mrs. Logan (J. V. Logan, Mary Lee Logan, 1856.9.17.~1919.12.7.), hailing from Kentucky, belonged to a distinguished family. Her contributions included teaching at the Men's and Women's Christian Youth Association at Kentucky Central University, engaging in social service, and fostering the youth movement. She was instrumental in inspiring young people to dream and envision a better future, while also teaching college students in a church setting. Her students included Eugene Bell(裵裕祉) in Mokpo, Pastor Oh Geung-seon(吳肯善) in Gunsan, and missionary Edwin H. Kagin (桂君) in Cheongju. At Kentucky Central University, Mrs. Logan's interest in overseas missionary work burgeoned. She arrived in Mokpo in 1907 to preach the gospel and later, in 1909, relocated from Mokpo and Gwangju to Cheongju in Chungbuk Province, influenced by her deep connection with missionary Edward Kagin. During their tenure at the university, where Mr. Kagin chaired the YMCA, Mrs. Logan provided significant support and care, leading to her eventual invitation to Cheongju by missionary Kagin. For a decade (1909-1919), she dedicated herself to women's education in Chungbuk Province as a missionary at the Cheongju Station. Mrs. Logan's life was devoted to mentoring young students in Kentucky. In Cheongju, she served as a self-reliant missionary, independently spearheading evangelization efforts without external support. She was Korea's first self-serving missionary. At 53, Mrs. Logan arrived in Cheongju and diligently studied Korean, excelling in both spoken language and elegant handwriting. She traveled to rural villages, focusing on missionary work and women's education in Chungbuk Province. Her introduction of Western culture to Koreans encompassed not only biblical education but also women's leadership training. Consequently, Chungbuk women were awakened to new perspectives, igniting their societal aspirations and leadership roles, notably in churches and the broader community. Her home became a sanctuary for those weary in body and spirit, where she was revered as a compassionate and nurturing figure. Her dedication to education and missionary work was fueled by a profound faith and fervent passion for the people of Chungbuk Province. Mrs. Logan passed away from exhaustion on December 19, 1919, at 63, deeply loving the people of Cheongju and Chungbuk Province. Her desire to “go to heaven through Korea” was fulfilled as she passed away in the country she loved. She rests at the Yanghwajin Foreign Missionary Cemetery in Seoul. A year and a half after her passing, the Cheongju-eup Church (current Cheongju First Church) and the Cheongju Station erected the 'Mrs. Logan Monument' in June 1921, in recognition of her impactful work. This monument, inscribed with 59 pure Korean characters, stands as a testament to her legacy. This monument holds several significances. Firstly, it is the inaugural monument in Korea composed entirely in Hangul. While Lee Yun-tak(李允濯)'s spiritual inscription in Hagae-dong, Seoul, was previously considered the first, it contains Chinese characters, thus, Mrs. Logan's monument takes precedence as a pure Hangul creation. Secondly, its establishment, led primarily by the Women's Evangelical Society rather than a church board, emphasizes women's pivotal role and the choice of Hangul for accessibility. Thirdly, its presence in a church yard illustrates the interplay between Christianity and the Korean national movement during the colonial period, marking a shift towards gender equality in Cheongju's sociocultural landscape. Lastly, its construction marked a transformative moment in the history of Chungbuk women. Today, the over-a-century-old Mrs. Logan Monument remains a well-preserved cultural relic, symbolizing women's empowerment, the intersection of C...
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