요동~서북한 지역에서 세형동검문화의 발생과 고조선의 국가형성 연구

송호정(Song Ho Jung) 한국상고사학회 2003 한국상고사학보 Vol.40 No.-

본 논문은 기원전 4~2세기 경 요동~서북한 지역에서 발달한 세형동검문화와 고조선사의 관련성을 검토한 것이다. 본 논문의 결론은 다음과 같다. 기원전 4세기 이후 중국 燕의 주민들이 遼寧地城 남부에 들어오면서 연의 선진문물이 전수되고 그 지역에서 정치집단 및 정치세력의 발달을 초래하였다. 문화적으로는 묘제의 변화가 발생하여 지석묘∙석관묘 대신 土壙墓가 등장하고, 이들 토광묘에는 특별한 예를 제외하고는 변형된 요령식동검이나 초기 세형동검이 출토하고 있다. 그런데 기원전 5~4세기 단계의 청동단검들은 벌써 요령식동검의 曲刃형태를 벗어나서 초기 세형동검 단계에 들어서고 있었다. 이들 초기 세형동검문화를 누리던 주민집단들은 크게 세 地域圈으로 나뉘어 성장 하고 있었다. 그것은 세 종류의 초기 세형동검이 지역을 달리하여 등장하는 것에서 증명된다. 이들 초기 세형동검문화 가운데 요동과 길림성 일대의 유형은 소멸하고 한반도 유형만이 요동 일대 초기 세형동검문화의 영향을 받아 보다 새로운 본격적 세형동검문화로 성장하게 된다. 기원전 5~4세기 단계에 고고학자료가 이처럼 지역성을 보이며, 또 공통된 문화적 특성을 보이는 것에 대해 <<위략>> 및 문헌기록에는 朝鮮侯 세력이 중심이 되어 주변의 여러 종족집단과 연맹을 이루고 있는 것으로 서술되어 있다. 또 문헌에는 요동 일대의 濊貊族이 일정한 지역집단으로 등장하고, 朝鮮 주변의 종족으로 등장한다. 그리고 ‘眞番’이 연의 침략, 衛滿의 도래 등의 사건과 관련하여 등장한다. 결국 眞番∙濊貊 등 지역집단들이 거주한 요동~서북한지역은 대개 ‘朝鮮’을 중심으로 하는 광범위한 聯盟을 이루고 있었으며, 그 연맹체의 중심에는 조선이 있었음을 알 수 있다. 조선연맹체 단계의 초기 세형동검문화는 요동~서북한 지역에 걸쳐 분포하면서 각 지역적 특성을 나타내었다. 검신 하부에 각이진 초기 세형동검은 혼하유역에서 서북한 지방에 걸쳐 분포하는데 지역 특성상 예맥족의 문화로 볼 수 있다. 검신 하부가 요령식동검처럼 둥근 초기 세형동검은 한반도 서북지방에 집중하는데 이는 고조선의 문화임이 분명하다. 그리고 요동반도에서 서북한지역에 걸쳐 나오는 검신이 직선인 초기 세형동검은 고조선과 예맥 계통의 주민집단이 조영한 문화인 것은 분명하나 현재의 자료만으로는 특성 주민집단이나 정치체에 연결시키기는 어렵다. 이후 기원전 3세기를 지나면서 중국으로부터 선진 철기문화가 남만주 지역과 한반도에도 영향을 미치게 된다. 요동지역과 서북한 청천강에 이르는 지역에는 세죽리-연화보 문화가 형성되고, 묘제상에서도 토광묘와 목곽묘가 등장한다. 이 지역에서 철기문화의 영향을 받아 초기 세형동겅문화가 발생하였으며, 곧이어 서북한지역에서도 요동지역의 영향 하에 새로운 세형동검문화가 형성되었다. 그리고 이러한 세형동검문화를 바탕으로 서북한지역에 衛滿朝鮮이 등장하였고 고조선은 위만 단계에 와서 일정한 정치체와 國家를 형성하게 된다. In B.C. 5~4C, Pitted tombs appeared in the LiaoDong area due to Chinese influence, and except specific cases, Bronze short knives usually are excavated from those kind of tombs. The Bronze short knives were already showing aspects of the Narrow shaped Bronze knives in their early stage of development, instead of bent styles which were prominent in the Liaoning-styled Bronze knives. Resident groups which were using this kind of Narrow shaped knives were showing developments in 3 separate locations in the region ranging from the LiaoDong area to the North-Western area of the peninsula. But developments in the LiaoDong area and the JiRinShung(吉林省) area later ceased to continue, and developments only in the Korean peninsula were able to step into a new phase of Korean-styled Bronze knives Culture thanks to the LiaoDong area influences. This also shows some kind of a widely federated alliance existence in regions ragning from the LiaoDong area to the North-Western area of the peninsula at B.C. 5~4C. According to WiRyak, around B.C. 4C the 'ChosumHookuk(朝鮮侯國)‘ addressed themselves as a Kingdom and attempted an assault upon Yen China, while establishing certain levels of ruling power. The so-called 'ChosunHookuk' seemed to have served as an alliance leader for several regional groups in the nearby area, and established primitive administrative devices in the need of managing and handling related affairs. Finally, state-like characteristics started to show up. As we can see, Kochosun accepted advanced cultural influences from the PreQin China thus securing some developments to a state-like body in its early stage of development in B.C. 4C(when the Yen Chinese began to establish effective presences in the Southern Manchurian area), and absorbed selected regions in the LiaoDong area resided by YaeMaek tribes, to form an allied state body. The culture at this time was showing Pitted tombs and Narrow shaped Bronze knives and several Iron-based weapons instead of stone tombs like Dolmens. The first state-like political body of this peninsula in constant development, were initially based on Bronze Utensil Culture and later flourished Iron Utensil Culture. So not only the Liaoning-styled Bronze knives Culture but also the Narrow shaped Bronze knives Culture should be covered in terms like, the so-called Kochosun culture. After B.C. 3C, Yen attacked DongHo and established parameter barriers at the far reaches of ChunShan mountain chain(千山山脈) in the LiaoDong area. A lot of Roofing Tiles(瓦當), MyungDoChuns(明刀錢 : the money that carved '明‘ character and shaped dagger), Iron Utensils are found from these areas, and these kind of artifacts are also only found in the Northern area to the ChungChun River area. This kind of deployment of archaeological artifacts suggests possibilities that Yen also attacked Chosun in its assault on Dongho in B.C. 3C, therefore forcing the residential groups consisting the Chosun alliance to relocate, and Kochosun to resume its developments from the newly located, Southern area to the Cungchun River area. In B.C. 4~3C, the North-Western area of the Peninsula shows developments of independent regional groups with abilities to form large villages and construct castles like in WoonSungRi(雲城里) or SungHyungRi(城峴里), In KoSanRi(孤山里), BanChunRi(反川里), SukSanRi(石山里), Narrow shaped Bronze knives, Bronze spears and Iron axes are excavated, showing certain patterns of excavation in particular areas. This kind of concentration of tombs for leading groups of the political hierarchy is even more strengthened in B.C. 2C when Wood-lined tombs(木槨墓) started to be constructed in the Pyung-an-nam-do(平安南道) province and Hwang-hae-do(黃海道) area. After all, separated regional groups like JinBun(眞番), LeemDun(臨屯), East-OkJoe(東沃沮) and many social classes within Kochosun's boundary started to merge in B.C. 3~2C(when conflicts have arisen against the incoming Chineses factions) as a unif

고조선을 둘러싼 상고사 체계에 대한 인식의 시대적 변천과 그 의미

송호정 ( Song Ho-jung ) 청람사학회 2018 靑藍史學 Vol.27 No.-

There have been two types of worship of Dangun from ancient times until today. One is the belief in Dangun as the national religion and the other is about Dangun as a transcendental being or god. Obviously, the two sides are not separate, but two sides of Dangun worship. It is because Dangun had both historical and religious meaning ; he was sacred because of his historical position as a founder. Now, our people are having a hard time because the same ethnic groups are divided into the South and the North. That is why efforts are urgently needed to bring about reconciliation and restore community spirit through the spirit of Dangun. However, in an effort to restore homogeneity between the two Koreas, it is imperative to remember that the two Koreas should not, as a pseudo-historian claim, be aware of the existence of Dangun and Dangun Joseon. It is important to rethink the historical meaning inside. Dangun may be a symbol as the founder of the nation, but he should not be regarded as a subject of religious faith. In that case, Dangun will end up as one of many folk gods.

두만강 유역의 고대문화와 정치집단의 성장

송호정(Song ho-jung) 호서사학회 2008 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.50

先秦文獻에 기록된 古朝鮮 사회와 주민집단

송호정(Song Ho-jung) 湖西史學會 2012 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.61

In the history, the appearance of the society of the early Gojoseon which corresponds to Bronze Age mostly remains as archaeology material and some of historical fact are recorded in the literature of PreChin era. Among PreChin literatures, the books in which the contents related to Gojoseon are recorded are 『Gwanja』, 『Sanhaekyung』, 『Jeongukchaek』 (The Warring States Book), 『Chunchu』 and 『Sangseo』. Through the record of 『Gwanja』, we can know that the early Gojoseon was located in Liaodong or in the area adjacent to Liaodong and did not exist in Liaosi area. Furthermore, it is highly likely that Gojoseon existed in the area adjacent to Liaodong. And Gojoseon was famous for regional product tiger leather which has pattern and in Chunchu period the Ji(齊) country discussed trade with Gojoseon. It can be confirmed that according to the record in 『Jeongukchaek』(The Warring States Book), at that time the Gojoseon was located in the area not distant from the frontier of Yan(燕) and was an influence group which they should pay attention to when discussing situation or foreign relation of Yan country. Accordingly it can be known that at the latest in the middle of the 4thcentury B.C. the true substance of Gojoseon was distinctly recognized by the people in northern China. In 『Sanhaekyoung』's 「Hanaebukkyung」 the gojoseon was located in the north of the sea and the south of the mountain, and because the area of the present Liaodong and west North Korea area is located with their back toward Jangbaek and Nangrim mountain range and facing the sea with the front it corresponds to the record in 『Sanhaekyoung』. In addition, in 『Haenaekyoung』 it is written that Gojoseon is located in the inside of seashore of the East Sea and the corner of the north sea. This means that roughly saying the Gojoseon is within the bounds of the East Sea. Finally the article in 『Sanhaekyoung』 only explains the rough situation about the location of Gojoseon and it is inadequate as a material which discusses the original location of Gojoseon. Some disputants strongly raise the contention that the influence expressed as 'Sukshin' or 'Doyee', 'Dongyee'(eastern barbarian) in the literature in ancient China can be seen as the real substance like 'Joseon'. However, because these tribes appear in the same record with 'Joseon' it is reasonable that they are seen as tribe groups different from 'Joseon'. In the above the conclusion obtained while reviewing the PreChin literature is the fact that Gojoseon was powerful influence group located in the east of Yan and maintained confrontation situation against Yan in the 4thcentury B.C. Only, about the fact that when and where in 7th century B.C. the true substance 'Joseon' appeared in the history, there is limitation in approaching to it with literature anymore. For clearer interpretation, we have no choice but to assume the area related to the early Gojoseon and judge through remains and relics excavated from there.

일제 강점기 이병도의 고조선사 연구

송호정(Song, Ho-Jung) 한국고대학회 2021 先史와 古代 Vol.- No.65

일제 강점기 이병도는 고조선을 한국 최초의 국가로 파악하고, 그 왕조가 단군조선에서 기자조선을 거쳐 위만조선으로 이어진다고 이해하였다. 그는 고조선이 국가체제를 어느 정도 갖춘 것은 기자조선(箕子朝鮮) 시기로 파악하고, 그 시기의 역사를 역사 지리적 관점에서 실증적으로 정리하는 데 노력하였다. 특히, 「패수고(浿水考)」 논문에서는 그동안의 평가와 달리 고조선사의 전개와 활동 무대를 초기부터 요동(遼東) 지역을 포함시켜 이해하고 있었다. 이병도는 일제 강점기 이래 줄곧 요동반도~한반도 서북지방(평안 황해도)을 고조선 계열의 문화발상지로 보았다. 그리고 청동기시대에 요동~한반도 서북지방에 걸쳐 세력을 키우던 고조선이 기원전 4~3세기경 중국 세력이 진출하자 청천강 이남으로 그 영역이 축소되었고, 그 이남 지역에서 왕(王)과 대부(大夫) 등 초기 고대 국가로서의 국가 조직을 갖추고 성장해 나갔다고 보았다. 이처럼 이병도는 최근 고조선과 관련해 논란이 되고 있는 여러 내용을 이미 일제 시기부터 문헌 고증을 통해 합리적이고 객관적으로 정리하였다. 이러한 이병도의 연구 성과는 최근 고 조선 중심지 평양설을 주장하는 연구자들의 논리적 근거가 되었고, 고조선 중심지 이동설에도 영향을 주었다. 그러나 일제 강점기 당시의 많은 역사학자들이 식민사학에 의해 왜곡되고 폄하된 우리 역사를 바로잡고 한국 고대사의 웅대한 면을 그리려고 노력했던 것에 비하면, 이병도는 역사서술의 합리성만을 추구했고, 식민지 시대에 요구되는 실천적 지식인으로서의 모습을 보여주지 못했다. Japanese colonial period Lee Byeong-do identified Gojoseon(古朝鮮) as the first country in Korea and that he understood that Gojoseon was connected to Wiman Joseon(衛滿朝鮮) via Gija Joseon(箕子朝鮮) from Dangun Joseon(檀君朝鮮). And he identified Gojoseon as the period of Giza Joseon as having a certain state system and tried to summarize the history of the period empirically from a historical and geographical perspective. In particular, in the paper Paesugo(浿水考) the development and activities of Gojoseon’s history were understood from the beginning by including the Liaoning area. Lee Byung-do has always regarded Yodong Peninsula and the northwestern part of the Korean Peninsula (Pyeongan and Hwanghae Province) as the cultural birthplace of Gojoseon, since Japanese colonial period continued. And During the Bronze Age, the area of Gojoseon, which had been growing in power from the Liaodong to the northwestern part of the Korean Peninsula, was reduced to the south of the Cheongcheon River when Chinese forces entered the area around the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.. Lee Byung-do has regarded Gojoseon grew up in the south of the Cheongcheon River with a national organization as an early ancient country, including the king(王) and the daifu(大夫). The Japanese colonial period Lee Byung-do s research on Gojoseon is objectively and rationally summarizing the recent controversy over Gojoseon. And even the latest academic orthodoxy has had so much impact that Lee Byung-do s research has given him ideas. Compared to the Japanese colonial period when history tried to correct our history distorted and disparaged by colonial history and paint the grand facade of ancient Korean history, Lee Byeongdo s research on Gojoseon pursued only the rationality of historical descriptions and there is a limit to the fact that he cannot be seen as a practical intellectual required during the colonial era.

세죽리-연화보유형 문화와 衛滿朝鮮의 성장

송호정(Song Ho-jung) 호서사학회 2007 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.48

고조선 중심지의 위치 문제에 대한 쟁점과 과제

송호정(Song, Ho-jung) 한국역사연구회 2015 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.98

The most important thing that should be considered in Go-Joseon studies is the possibility that the territory of Go-Joseon could have shifted as time went on, that the feature of the Go-Joseon realm could have had different shapes in different periods. The history of Go-Joseon shows two phases: the Bronze culture era when the Go-Joseon people still used Bipa-shaped bronze daggers, and the Iron culture era when Go-Joseon achieved the status of a ‘State.’ From this, we can easily see the importance of acknowledging the fact that there should have been ‘periodic changes’ in the Go-Joseon realm, when we try to approach its history from an academic viewpoint. In the early phases of the Ancient period, borderlines were not that distinctive as they are today. Between states and political entities, incredibly large areas remained unpopulated. Go-Joseon’s western border area in particular is believed to have been more than fluid. And there were various tribes living in the vicinity. So, trying to dictate the Daedong-gang river area as the (Western) border of Go-Joseon, or arguing that Go-Joseon’s realm engulfed the entire Manchu region as well as the Northern part of the Korean peninsula, the “entire time” from beginning to end, is simply unrealistic. Scholars and the public should refrain from considering ‘regional deployment of tribes’ or the ‘range of [their] cultural influences’ as indicators of parameters for an actual political territory. Perceiving the entire realm that shared the Bipa-shaped bronze dagger culture directly as the political territory of Go-Joseon is nothing but an academically inappropriate misconception. The Daedong-gang river in the Pyeong’yang region should not be excluded from the early-stage realm of Go-Joseon, while including not only the Liaodung(遼東) region but also the Liaoshi(遼西) region in Go-Joseon’s supposed realm of influence is simply without sufficient empirical basis.

선사시대에서 역사시대로의 전환에 대한 역사 서술과 연구 방법론

송호정(Song, Ho-jung) 호서사학회 2013 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.65

최근 한국상고사 논쟁의 본질과 그 대응

송호정(Song, Ho-jung) 한국역사연구회 2016 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.100

Recently, some quasi historians have grouped and argued that Gojoseon and Nakrang-gun were positioned in the Manju area and not inside the Korean peninsula. Debates over the matter span out of control, and eventually became a controversy. Their arguments are old, as those theories had already been thrown in the 1980s, and then resurfaced nowadays, virtually unchanged. Their denouncement and attacks upon legitimate previous studies have finally crossed the line, and should no longer be tolerated. They criticise previous studies for being supposedly ‘similar’ to recent Chinese studies or ‘colonial history’ that had been developed by the Japanese over a century ago. But they do so without presenting sufficient analysis or objective evaluation. It is most troubling that these quasi historians’ arguments, and the possibility that their studies might be used by whoever in political power, could irrevocably compromise the integrity of future historical studies, which would require careful interpretation of historical texts. Historians and researchers can no longer afford to sit back and watch. They should rise and aid in the education of the public. Presented in this article is a critical analysis of quasi historical studies, in which the so-called ‘bases’ of their arguments are carefully examined. This is meant as a comprehensive review of the Korean ancient history controversy which would hopefully remind all of us that these studies, and sometimes other studies in the past as well, oftentimes feature highly politicized chauvinist perspectives, especially when dealing with issues such as territorial boundaries and centers, and do not bother to determine how people actually lived during those times.

한군현(漢郡縣) 지배의 역사적 성격

송호정(Song Ho-jung) 한국역사연구회 2010 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.78

In 108 B.C., Han waged a war against Gojoseon so as to take away the interests Gojoseon was taking from relaying trades, and moreover, to sever the link between Gojoseon and the Huns. After destroying Gojoseon, Han established four provinces, in order to secure the economic benefits. The governors were dispatched from Han, but in a strict sense, the provinces were governed by native-born ruling powers. Among the four provinces, the Lerang Province in particular functioned as the capital of the region ruled by Wiman Joseon before it was destroyed by Han, and enabled the people to have trades with China s inland areas and surrounding countries including Dong Yi. The Lerang Province won over the native ruling powers and controlled them, but it could go only so far and no farther. The province governed people indirectly through the native ruling powers. The influence of such provinces lasted until the early 4th century, yet they were continuing to decline. The provinces were external factors that exerted pressure on the political growth of the Ye/Maek tribe and the Han tribe, but at the same time, the inflow of China s advanced civilization gave the two tribes a possibility for new development. The purpose of the Lerang Province was changed according to China s political situations. Lerang Province was under China s clout once, but it should not be overlooked that it has always been a part of the Korean history, even before it was existent.