베트남 전쟁과 물건의 기억: 임흥순의 ‘귀국박스’ 아카이브전들과 작업 (2008-2009)

고동연 한국미국사학회 2012 미국사연구 Vol.35 No.-

이완 월터스(Ian Walters)는 1997년 베트남 전쟁에 참여한 미군병사들이 소지하였던 지포 라이터에 관한 연구에서 특정한 물질문화가 역사적 배경과 시점에 따라서 다르게 해석되고 다양한 의미를 부여 받게 되는 과정을 설명한 바 있다. 전쟁 당시 전장에 배치된 미군 병사들의 심리적인 압박감과 죽음에 대한 두려움을 표출하는 수단이었던 지포 라이터는 1975년 전쟁이 종료되고 베트남이 서방 세계에 개방되면서 관광객들 사이에서 인기 있는 소장품으로 자리 잡았다. 또한 이후 베트남 역사를 연구하는 학자들 사이에서 지포 라이터는 개인의 소장품일 뿐 아니라 중요한 역사적, 물질문화사적인 연구대상으로 인식되기 시작하였다. 본 연구 또한 ‘공식’적인 전쟁의 역사 대신에 잘 알려지지 않은, 혹은 잊혀진 개인사와 물질문화의 관점에서 베트남에 참전한 한국군인들의 역사를 살펴보고자 한다. 1964년부터 1973년까지 한국 정부는 미국 다음으로 많은 5만 명에 달하는 병력을 베트남 전쟁에 투입하였고, 베트남 파병은 1960년대 말 한국의 주요 기업들과 함께 주요한 외화벌이의 수단이었다. 이와 같은 역사적 배경 때문에 베트남 전쟁과 연관된 국내의 담론들은 파병의 정당성을 옹호하거나 비판하는 데에 집중되어 왔다. 본 연구는 거대 담론에 의하여 간과되어온 참전 군인들의 개인사를 고찰하기 위하여 한국 군인들이 귀국할 당시 자신들의 소지품을 담아서 국내에 보냈던 귀국박스를 주요 연구대상으로 삼고자 한다. 왜냐하면 귀국박스는 1989년 해외여행 전면 자율화 이전에 한국인들이 단체로 외국의 문물과 대중소비문화를 받아들였던 역사적 사건에 해당하기 때문이다. 뿐만 아니라 연구자가 기획한 일민미술관에서의 전시 「여의도비행장에서 인천공항까지」(2011)를 준비하는 과정에서 물건을 대여한 참전 군인들을 만나본 결과 귀국박스에 담기고 이제까지 보존되어온 물건들은 그들이 개인적으로 전쟁을 기억하는 방식을 함축적으로 보여주는 주요한 문화적 사료라고 할 수 있다. 이이서 연구의 후반부는 2008년부터 귀국박스의 아카이브를 중심으로 개인전을 개최하여온 임흥순 작가의 작업에 초점을 맞추게 된다. 임흥순은 귀국박스에 담겨져 있었던 참전 군인들의 사진, 편지, 훈장과 각종 물건에 대한 사연들을 아카이브 형식으로 나열한 「귀국박스」(2008)와 「월남에서 온 편지」(2009)의 전시들을 기획한 바 있다. 이들 전시에서 작가는 이제까지 베트남 참전 군인들의 사회적 의의가 제대로 조명되지 못한 점에 착안하여 사진 속 이미지가 희미해지는 「귀국박스: 무명용사 기념비」(2008)나 귀국박스 속의 외제 물건들로 한 밑천을 삼고자 하였던 참전 군인들의 수기를 담은 「전쟁구술사진」(2009) 연작을 제작하였다. 여기서 연구자는 임흥순이 과거 전쟁의 기억을 되살리기 위하여 인덱스(Index) 기법을 사용하는 과정에도 주목하고자 한다. 인덱스는 상징이나 아이콘과는 달리 지시하고자 하는 대상이나 물건과의 직접적인 접촉을 통하여 만들어지는 상징체계이다. 따라서 미술사에서 인덱스 수법은 사라져가는 기억을 되살리고 이에 대한 관람객들의 관심을 환기시키는 데에 있어 효과적인 수단으로 인식되어져 왔다. 이에 본 연구는 베트남 파병에 대한 대안적인 관점을 제공하고, 나아가서 과거 전쟁으로부터 파생된 물건과 물건에 대한 기억들을 현재의 시점에서 예술가가 새롭게 인 ... The Zippo lighter used by American military in Vietnam between 1967 and 1974 call for a revised approach toward the studies of material culture; its meaning is in a consistent state of flux, contrary to the traditional archeological explanation of an artifact as a conveyor of particular historical significance inherited from the past. As Ian Walters, the author of “Vietnam Zippos”(1997), argues, there have been a number of different personal and collective meanings attached to these lighters depending on where these objects have been situated and recovered - either in the middle of warfare, or in the hands of businessman as a collector’s item. This essay will use the example of material culture, especially personal belonging sent via “homecoming boxes(Guiguk Box)” of Korean soldiers as one way of investigating transient and ever-changing meanings of objects and material culture during the Vietnam war. Instead of ferreting out authentic meanings of these objects, this essay, however, use these artifacts or the historical documents related to these objects as initiators of open and alternative historical knowledges and interpretations. The purpose of this study is three-folded: rather than utilizing information from the history of war strategies and political circumstances related to the Vietnam war, this essay will concentrate on the daily lives, well-beings and even emotional states of ordinary Korean soldiers, who fought on the battlefield of Vietnam. As the Korean installation artist, Heung-Soon Lim has pointed out, the official discourse of the Vietnam War has overly been constrained within the grand history of warfares during the cold war. This study concentrates on the stories about American PXs and black market to reconstruct the lives of Korean soldiers serving in Vietnam. Secondly, this essay will highlight the extremely greedy and materialistic nature of the Vietnam War. The American Government poured on unpreceded scale of materialistic resources in the Vietnam War to improve the situation of the American military - constructing huge recreation centers and American PXs on site. By observing consumer culture brought to Vietnam and the black market in Vietnam, I will look at how consumer culture was used by Korea soldiers to explain their limited perspective of everyday products; as Japanese portable electronic products were pouring in the black market at Danang and Nha Terang in southern Vietnam. At the same time, most of ordinary Korean soldiers were not able to fully enjoy American and Japanese consumer and material culture as there had been limited venues and money to purchase these products. Most of small consumer goods stored inside “homecoming box” were sold out to illegal smuggler and merchants at the port as soon as they return from Vietnam. Finally, throughout this two exhibitions of <Homecoming Box> in 2008 and <The Letters from Vietnam> in 2009, the artist Heung-Soon Lim strived to recover material culture of Korean soldiers in Vietnam, in late 1960s and early 1970s. He juxtaposed official renditions of anti-communist ethos on the one hand, and writing and photographs of soldiers. The contents inside the <Homecoming Box> continuously attested their ambiguous position between the Vietnam, the colonized citizens, and American soldiers and consumerism. Furthermore, Lim has also used the method of indexicality as he engraved a Korean soldiers’s testimony related to the memory of consumer products, which can be also interpreted as indicating their unfulfilled hope for economic prosperity. This indexical sign enables the artist to demonstrate his way of bringing up memories of forgotten and marginalized soldiers of the Vietnam War in Korea. His interpretation of material culture enjoyed by Korean soldiers will demonstrate the way in which artistic intervention can open up a new theoretical framework of looking at past objects in the field of archeology, art history, and cultural studies.

포스트 코로나 시대 베트남 소비자들의 자민족중심주의 성향이 한국 화장품 브랜드 충성도에 미치는 영향에 관한 연구: 한국 화장품 브랜드에 대한 지각된 쾌락적 가치의 조절효과를 중심으로

이상하,이춘수 한국국제경영관리학회 2022 국제경영리뷰 Vol.26 No.4

This study analyzed the effect of local consumers’ patriotism on consumer ethnocentrism and the effect of consumer ethnocentrism on the loyalty of Korean cosmetic brands during the COVID-19 situation in Vietnam. In addition, we analyzed the moderating effect of perceived hedonic values on the relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and the loyalty of Korean cosmetic brands. As a result of empirical analysis using the structural equation modeling, local consumers’ patriotism caused by COVID-19 had a significant positive effect on consumer ethnocentrism in Vietnam. In addition, consumer ethnocentrism had a significant negative effect on the loyalty of Korean cosmetic brands. And the perceived hedonic value had a significant positive effect on the loyalty of Korean cosmetic brands, and also showed a moderating effect to alleviate the negative effect of consumer ethnocentrism on the loyalty of Korean cosmetic brands. Therefore, Korean cosmetic companies should come up with a marketing strategy that can effectively provide the hedonic value of their brands to Vietnamese consumers in order to cope with the ethnocentrism of Vietnamese consumers in the post corona era. In order to establish an effective marketing strategy, this study suggested ways such as developing aesthetic and luxurious package designs, beautiful and sensuous advertisements emphasizing the visuals, creating an urban and luxurious atmosphere in stores where Korean cosmetic brands are distributed, and actively utilizing Hallyu content to strengthen their brand image. 본 연구는 COVID-19 상황에서 강화된 베트남 소비자들의 애국심이 소비자 자민족중심주의에 미치는 영향과 소비자 자민족중심주의가 한국 화장품 브랜드 충성도에 미치는 영향에 대해 분석하였다. 더하여 소비자 자민족중심주의와 한국 화장품 브랜드 충성도 간의 관계에서 한국 화장품 브랜드에 대한 지각된 쾌락적 가치의 조절 효과에 대해 분석하였다. 실증분석 결과, COVID-19 상황에서 강화된 베트남 소비자들의 애국심은 소비자 자민족중심주의에 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 그리고 소비자 자민족중심주의는 한국 화장품 브랜드 충성도에 부(-)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 또한 지각된 쾌락적 가치는 한국 화장품 브랜드 충성도에 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났으며, 소비자 자민족중심주의가 한국 화장품 브랜드 충성도에 미치는 부정적인 영향을 완화하는 조절효과를 나타내었다. 따라서 한국 화장품 기업들은 포스트 코로나 시대에 베트남 시장에서 직면할 수 있는 소비자들의 자민족중심주의 성향에 대응하기 위해 심미적이고 고급스러운 패키지 디자인의 개발, 베트남 소비자들이 원하는 비주얼을 강조한 아름답고 감각적인 느낌의 광고, 한국 화장품 브랜드가 유통되는 매장의 도시적이고 고급스러운 분위기의 조성, 브랜드 이미지 강화를 위한 한류 콘텐츠의 적극적인 활용 등과 같은 마케팅 전략을 통해 베트남 소비자들에게 자사 브랜드의 쾌락적 가치를 효과적으로 제공할 수 있도록 노력해야 할 것이다.

The Application of Strategic Management Accounting: Evidence from the Consumer Goods Industry in Vietnam

Thieu Manh NGUYEN,Thanh Thi NGUYEN 한국유통과학회 2021 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.8 No.10

This article analyzes factors affecting the application of strategic management accounting in different enterprises in Vietnam’s consumer goods industry, providing more empirical evidence on factors affecting the application of strategic management accounting. The research method used a questionnaire survey of managers at all levels, chief accountants, and accountants from 72 consumer goods enterprises in Vietnam. The survey results collected 290 questionnaires, however, due to invalid questionnaires with many blank cells, 284 questionnaires were finally selected. Quantitative research was carried out with SPSS 25 software. Research results show that 6 factors have a positive influence on the application of strategic management accounting including awareness of the business market, business strategy, technology, corporate culture, qualification of management accountants, decentralization of management, in which technology has the strongest influence on the application of strategic management accounting in consumer goods enterprises in Vietnam. The standardized Beta coefficient extracted from the multiple linear regression equation reveals that the technology factor has a high standardized Beta coefficient (0.176) compared to other factors. Based on the research results, the author has proposed recommendations to improve the ability of consumer goods businesses to successfully apply strategic management accounting techniques, thereby contributing to improving competitiveness and performance of consumer goods enterprises.

Critical Factors Affecting Consumer Intention of Using Mobile Banking Applications During COVID-19 Pandemic: An Empirical Study from Vietnam

Nguyen Minh SANG 한국유통과학회 2021 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.8 No.11

The study analyzes the factors affecting the intention and recommendation to use the mobile banking applications of 314 customers from Vietnam. The study analyzes 7 factors affecting the intention and recommendation to use the mobile banking applications of customers from Vietnam, including (i) Perceived risk; (ii) Perceived ease of use; (iii) Perceived usefulness; (iv) Attitude; (v) Perceived trust; (vi) Social image; and (vii) Innovativeness. Besides, the study also analyzes 4 variables that reflect the customer’s demographics, including gender, age, education, and occupation, and 6 variables describing the behavior of customers using mobile banking applications. The study findings indicate that the following factors (i) Innovativeness; (ii) Attitude; (iii) Perceived risk; (iv) Perceived ease of use, and (v) Perceived trust have the most significant impact on customers’ behavior of using mobile banking applications in emerging markets such as Vietnam in the context of prolonged pandemic and continuous lockdown in many provinces and cities. The study is also of great value to studies on behavior changes among customers using mobile banking applications after the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam. The study will provide additional empirical evidence useful to bank administrators in motivating customers to use mobile banking applications, helping develop a digital economy in Vietnam.

Determinants of Intention to Borrow Consumer Credit in Vietnam: Application and Extension of Technology Acceptance Model

Van Hai HOANG,Phuong Mai NGUYEN,Thi Minh Ngoc LUU,Thi Minh Hien VU 한국유통과학회 2021 The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Busine Vol.8 No.4

The purpose of this study is to examine the determinants of intention to borrow consumer credit of Vietnamese people by applying the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and extending it with several variables, including anxiety, perceived trust, and perceived financial costs extracted and adapted from the existing literature. A questionnaire survey was administered in the big cities of Vietnam to a total of 602 consumers. Structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques have been employed to investigate the relationship among intention determinants to borrow. Findings show that perceived usefulness mediates the impact of subjective norms on the intention to borrow consumer credit. At the same time, subjective norms also directly influence the intention to borrow. Notably, anxiety, perceived trust, perceived financial cost, perceived ease of use have no significant influence on intention to borrow. Meanwhile, education level is confirmed to have a moderate influence on intention to borrow consumer credit of Vietnamese people. However, there is not enough statistical evidence about the influence of gender and marital status on the intention to borrow consumer credit in Vietnam. Based on the findings of the Vietnamese consumer credit market, we proposed some suggestions to promote the growth of the market in the future.

베트남 소비자의 모바일 결제 이용의도에 관한 연구: 혁신성과 불확실성 회피성향의 영향 분석

응웬티꾹 ( Nguyen Thi Cuc ),표민찬 ( Pyo Minchan ) 한국외국어대학교 동남아연구소 2021 東南亞硏究 Vol.31 No.2

This study examined the effect of consumer innovativeness and perceived risk on the intention to use mobile payment. In addition, this study also investigated the moderating effect of uncertainty avoidance on consumer’s intention of mobile payment. The empirical results are as follows: First, the consumer innovativeness has a positive effect on the intention to use mobile payment, while a negative effect on perceived risk related to mobile payment. In addition, perceived risk negatively affects the intention to use mobile payment. It was confirmed that consumer innovativeness not only directly affects the intention to use mobile payments, but also indirectly affects the intention to use via the mediation of perceived risk. Second, the uncertainty avoidance shows the moderating effect between consumers’ innovativeness and the intention to use mobile payment service, and between perceived risk and the intention to use. In the case of consumers with low uncertainty avoid, it was found that consumer innovativeness has a higher influence on the intention to use mobile payments. Additionally, consumers with a low tendency to avoid uncertainty are not sensitive to the risks associated with mobile payments, so the perceived risk has a lower influence on the intention to use mobile payment.

Advertising Nationalism: How Effective Are Advertisements Appealing to Consumer Ethnocentrism? – The Cases of Electric Vehicles and Smartphones in a Developing Southeast Asian Country

Tran Huu Dat,Uyen Diep Pham Phuong,Anh Do Thi Ngoc 한국언론학회 2023 Asian Communication Research Vol.20 No.3

While CETSCALE has frequently been tested and applied in Western contexts, it has received little attention in Asian countries, particularly Vietnam, a developing country that has one of the highest economic growth rates worldwide (DablaNorris & Zhang, 2021). Hence, the current study employs CETSCALE to examine the effects of nationalistic advertisements on consumer ethnocentrism and purchase intention for the domestic VinFast electric vehicles and Bphone smartphones among Vietnamese millennial consumers. Results based on 206 survey responses (N = 206) suggested the predictive powers of respondents’ attention and exposure to nationalistic advertisements on their perceptions of the advertisements which, in turn, predicted consumer ethnocentrism level and domestic buying intention. Perceptions of nationalistic advertisements particularly played a quintessential role in predicting consumers' ethnocentrism and, eventually, buying intentions for domestic EVs and smartphones. The study is one of the first attempts to examine the influence of nationalistic advertisements (e.g., exposure and attention), in relation to CETSCALE, on buying intentions, looking at two different product categories (i.e., EVs and smartphones). Furthermore, it contributed to the globalization and de-Westernization of media mass communication scholarship by testing CETSCALE in the understudied context of Vietnam. Theoretical and empirical implications, for instance, employment strategies for nationalistic advertising, were provided.

베트남 소고기시장의 특성에 따른 수출 가능성에 대한 연구

최윤상 한국농식품정책학회 2023 농업경영정책연구 Vol.50 No.2

This study suggests strategies for beef exports to Vietnam through identifying characteristics of its beef market based on results from analysis on its beef market, surveys on consumers and experts. The results from surveys provide characteristics of Vietnam’s beef market, propensity to consume Korean beef and possibility of Korean beef exports. As rapid economic growth and changes in preference result in expansion of import market in Vietnam, Vietnam’s beef market is highly attractive to Korean beef products. Vietnamese consumers have high intention to purchase Korean beef products, and are willing to pay high price for them. But success of Korean beef products in Vietnam’s beef market also depends upon systematic disease controls, establishment of its brand image, effective quality and sanitation/safety management and government supports.

베트남 진출 해외기업의 사회공헌활동과 그 영 향에 관한 현지 소비자의 인식

서운석(Suh, Woon-Seok),정혜영(Jung, Hye-Young) 한국공공사회학회 2015 공공사회연구 Vol.5 No.2

사회공헌활동은 기업의 사회적 책임을 일컫는 말로, 기업이 지속적으로 존속하기 위한 본연의 이윤추구 활동 이외에 국내외적인 법령과 사회적 윤리를 준수하고, 소비자 등 기업과 관련된 이해관계자의 요구에 적절히 대응함으로서 사회에 긍정적 영향을 미치는 활동이라고 할 수 있다. 이러한 기업의 사회공헌활동은 더 이상 선택이 아닌 필수 요소로써 기업의 지속가능한 경영을 위한 핵심요건으로 받아들여지고 있다. 이는 해외에 진출하는 기업들에게서도 동일하게 적용된다. 그리고 최근 해외에 진출하는 한국기업들이 특히 관심을 갖는 국가 중의 하나가 베트남이다. 베트남 시장의 성장 잠재력은 소비성향이 높은 젊은 소비층의 증가로 내수시장 성장이 전망된다는 점에서 의의가 크다. 이와 관련된 상황을 보면 베트남은 젊은 소비자들을 중심으로 고급제품 구매가 확산되고 있으며, 고성장에 힘입어 중산층도 확대될 것으로 전망되어 소비시장 성장에 우호적인 여건이 조성되고 있다고 할 수 있다. 이 연구는 베트남 청년층을 중심으로 베트남 진출 해외기업의 사회공헌활동과 그 영향에 관한 현지 소비자의 인식을 확인해 보고자 하였다. 베트남 청년층 소비자를 중심으로 베트남 진출기업의 사회공헌활동과 그 영향에 관한 현지 인식을 살펴본 결과 베트남 진출 해외기업의 사회공헌활동이 해당기업의 브랜드 신뢰와 상품구매 의도에 일정한 영향을 주는 경향성을 확인할 수 있었다. 이는 베트남 시장에서의 사회공헌활동은 해당기업의 현지 경영에 긍정적 영향을 준다는 의미이다. 이런 경향은 반대로 베트남에 진출한 우리 기업이 부적절한 사회공헌활동을 한다면 해당기업의 경영에 부정적 영향을 미치는 것은 물론이고 다른 한국기업들의 이미지와 국가이미지에도 영향을 미쳐 시장개척이나 현지 생산활동에 심각한 애로를 초래할 수도 있다는 것을 의미한다. 이런 의미에서 민관 협의체를 통하여 베트남 진출 한국기업의 사회공헌활동 활성화와 효율화를 도모할 수 있도록 하는 방안을 제안한다. Corporate social responsibility(CSR) is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a self-regulatory mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards and international norms. CSR aims to embrace responsibility for corporate actions and to encourage a positive impact on the environment and stakeholders including consumers, employees, investors, communities, and others. And most consumers believe companies doing charity will receive a positive response. Some study results also found that consumers are loyal and willing to spend more on retailers that support charity. Therefore CSR is treated with long-term and continuous activity in strategic marketing. And recently Korean firms pick Vietnam as most promising emerging market. Because in Vietnam, young people make up a big portion of the population, this means Vietnam has a lot of room to grow, as these are the people who will lead future production and consumption. The goal of this study is to examine Vietnam rising generation consumers’ cognition for the overseas companies CSR and its implication. The results of this study show that CSR being taken by Korean companies operate in Vietnam related with the brand reliability and product purchasing intention. So korean companies operate in Vietnam have to promote socially and environmentally responsible corporate practices. And this study suggested a joint committee be formed by the korean companies and government groups. The heightened role of the joint committee in CSR has facilitated the development of numerous CSR programs and policies.

베트남 소비자들의 한국 제품 브랜드 경험이 브랜드 아우라에 미치는 영향에 관한 연구

정갑연(Gap-Yeon Jeong) 한국무역연구원 2018 무역연구 Vol.14 No.2

This study examined how Korean product brand experience of Vietnamese consumers to brand aura. In essence, this study verified how Korean product brand experience which includes sensory, affective, behavioral and intellectual brand experience has an effect on brand aura through brand knowledge and attachment. A total of 283 Vietnamese consumers visiting Korean product shops in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam were used for empirical analysis. The empirical results established that Korean brand experience of Vietnamese consumers positively influenced brand knowledge and attachment. Also, brand knowledge had a positive effect on brand attachment. Furthermore, Vietnamese consumer brand knowledge and attachment had a positive influence on brand aura. This study implies that Korean companies can help gain competitive advantage in the Vietnamese market by understanding consumer experience of their brands and using differentiated strategies that can lead to brand aura.