고조선의 발전과정과 강역의 변동

서영수(Seo, Young-Soo) 백산학회 2006 白山學報 Vol.- No.76

Old Chosun, originating from the primary state called Asadal 阿斯達, was developed Old Chosun Dynasty competed with Empire Chin and Han. It is a substantial reality. The research on the history of Old Chosun has focused of the issue about where the center was, how large the territory was, and when the state was founded. In this research, on the basis of archaeological researches, I have collected and systematized the materials scattered in old books in Korea and China about Old Chosun, and then I will investigate the transition of Old Chosun’s territory. I have examined the articles related to Old Chosun in Tankoonsinhwa檀君神話 and Shiji, considering recent archaeological researches and I have realized that the first momentum is the close relation to the emergence of Bronze culture in North-east Asia and the second is that the refugees of Shang and Chu dynasty in China invaded into Old Chosun society and had great influence on it. On the basis of development in material culture, such as Mandolin shaped bronze dagger, Old Chosun had developed known as Chosun in China dynasty in B.C7 century and through trades with Je, and Yan, in China, it was developed into Kingdom in Liaodung in B.C 4C. When iron instrument was spread in North-east Asia in the middle period of Old Chosun Kingdom, it competed with the Empire of China, such as Yan燕, Chin秦, Han漢etc. but Old Chosun lost the war against Yan, so it gave in the territory from Chensan, 千山, later called Manbunhan, 滿番汗 to the western area along 大凌河 and retreated toward south. It transferred its center to the area near Daedong river大同江. In the period of Chin dynasty, Old Chosun lost the Peninsular Liaodung. but in the early period of Han dynasty reconquered 遼東外徼 and extend its territory to the western area along 小遼水. Thereafter Old Chosun kingdom competed with Empire Han.

1293~1303년 高麗 서해안 ‘元 水驛’의 置廢와 그 의미

이강한 한국중세사학회 2012 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.33

In 1293, total of 11 Sea stations were deployed along the southern coastline of the Korean peninsula. Since the late 1280s, the Kadaan forces from the Liaodung region had been destabilizing not only Goryeo on the Korean peninsula but also the entire eastern region of the Mongol Yuan empire. So troops to subdue them had to be dispatched, and so were supplies that would feed them, or feed the population there. Since the end of the 1280s and during the early half of the 1290s, grain transports continued to come and go between the Chinese Jiangnan region and the Liaodung area, via the south side of the Korean peninsula. Also, along with grains, merchants and commercial items continued to travel as well. And most importantly, this sea station route encouraged Jiangnan merchants to continue visiting Goryeo, in a time when the number of merchants visiting Goryeo had already considerably dropped. Then after 10 years, the Sea station route was dismantled in 1303. The Liaodung threat was neutralized once and for all. There was no need for further grain transport to the region. The shipping freighters who had been instrumental in establishing both the Jiangnan-Beijing supply line and also the Jiangnan-Goryeo-Liaodung belt, became corrupted and were all expelled from the government. Without them, it was not an easy task to operate all the remote sea stations from China. And as the Yuan government's plan to establish multiple relationships with Southeast asian regions was successfully completed, increased traffic with the region rendered the sea station route of the Korean peninsula's south shore quite obsolete. There was no other option but to dismantle it. And with the dismantlement, Jiangnan merchants also stopped visiting Korea, for at least half a century. In 1293, total of 11 Sea stations were deployed along the southern coastline of the Korean peninsula. Since the late 1280s, the Kadaan forces from the Liaodung region had been destabilizing not only Goryeo on the Korean peninsula but also the entire eastern region of the Mongol Yuan empire. So troops to subdue them had to be dispatched, and so were supplies that would feed them, or feed the population there. Since the end of the 1280s and during the early half of the 1290s, grain transports continued to come and go between the Chinese Jiangnan region and the Liaodung area, via the south side of the Korean peninsula. Also, along with grains, merchants and commercial items continued to travel as well. And most importantly, this sea station route encouraged Jiangnan merchants to continue visiting Goryeo, in a time when the number of merchants visiting Goryeo had already considerably dropped. Then after 10 years, the Sea station route was dismantled in 1303. The Liaodung threat was neutralized once and for all. There was no need for further grain transport to the region. The shipping freighters who had been instrumental in establishing both the Jiangnan-Beijing supply line and also the Jiangnan-Goryeo-Liaodung belt, became corrupted and were all expelled from the government. Without them, it was not an easy task to operate all the remote sea stations from China. And as the Yuan government's plan to establish multiple relationships with Southeast asian regions was successfully completed, increased traffic with the region rendered the sea station route of the Korean peninsula's south shore quite obsolete. There was no other option but to dismantle it. And with the dismantlement, Jiangnan merchants also stopped visiting Korea, for at least half a century.

원대 요동 여원(麗元) 접경에서의 요양행성 역할 고찰

오기승(Oh Ki-seung) 한국역사연구회 2018 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.107

Throughout the Goryeo and Joseon period, Liaodung region served as an intermediary between the Korean peninsula and the Chinese mainland. Liao and Chin, Ming and Qing all established a governmental body along the border between Liaodung and the peninsula, and had them face issues and take charge of resolving them. Among all such cases, however, the situation between Goryeo and the Mongol Yuan empire was somewhat different. Goryeo and the empire was closely connected with each other more than ever compared to other time periods due to the marital relationship established between the leaders on both sides, and at the same time the Jeongdong Haengseong Provincial government was tieing bureaucratic systems of both sides closer to each other. So a buffer system, in the form of a governmental entity stationed in Liaodung, was simply not necessary. As a result, in this period the role of Liaodung was simply that of a traffic route or channel of communication between the Chinese mainland and the Korean peninsula. Yet sometimes the region witnessed more conflicts than dialogue. The region served as a base of operations for several Chinese factions which were formed to put the Korean peninsula under check. These factions began to surface fairly early on, since the early years of the Mongol empire, but when the Liaoyang Provincial government was established in the region by Emperor Qubilai, they were incorporated into that entity and continued to operate within that boundary. There were two types of roles played by the Liaoyang Provincial government (or Liaodung region for that matter) in terms of attempting to restrain Goryeo. One was a rather direct approach, using a strategy of stealing part of the Northern territory of Goryeo, as we can see from the examples of Dong’ nyeong-bu and Ssang’seong Chong’gwan-bu. In the other, either influential figures in the Liaodung region or members of the Imperial government would use factions inside the Liaoyang Provincial government to intervene in sovereign deliberations of the Goryeo government. Hong Jung-hi, who served as a Wuseung(右丞) figure inside the Liaoyang Provincial government, or Gi Cheol, who rose to the status of a Pyeongjang(平章) minister in the same province were both such examples, as they both tried (at different times) to relieve the Goryeo king from the throne through a series of campaigns designed to appeal to the Emperor himself for the erection of a new Provincial government on the Korean peninsula (to replace the existing Jeongdong Provincial government). And in another example, Dowager Empress Gi even tried to replace King Gongmin, by mobilizing troops of the Liaoyang Provincial government and sending them to Goryeo.

15세기 초반 조선과 명의 정보교류와 요동(遼東)

이규철(Lee Gyu-cheol) 한국역사연구회 2018 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.107

In the early 15<SUP>th</SUP> century, the worsened relationship between Joseon and Ming led to severely limited general exchanges. Minor disagreements could have quite possibly led to full blown military conflicts in such atmosphere. Intelligence exchanges were also out of the question. Gathering information regarding each other was more than difficult. General exchanges between Joseon and Ming only increased in the reign of King Taejong, and it was this time when both parties began to exchange information with each other. Both parties expanded their administrative and intelligence exchanges especially through the Liaodung Dosa(遼東都司) office. During the reign of King Sejong, Liaodung region became the essential base for intelligence exchange between the two dynasties. Whenever they had to commune with each other rather quickly, they contacted the Liaodung Dosa office first and sent relevant information over to them. Then intelligence gathered by the Dosa office would be relayed to the other side’s government, through proper channels. Joseon and Ming continued to collide with each other as they saw fit, but they also continued to expand exchanges, and the manners of such exchanges continued to diversify as well. Either continuous or prolonged conflicts would have only been detrimental to the interests of both countries. Intelligence gathering of the premodern era had to depend upon human resources, and in order for the government to use human resources, a region for them to operate was more than necessary.

중국 요하문명론의 전개와 의미

조법종(Cho Bup-Jong) 고려사학회 2013 한국사학보 Vol.- No.51

Recently Chinese academics have started a claim that the origin of the Chinese civilizationthe began to Yellow River. They changed that the origin of Chinese civilization is not one, but Chinese civilization began in several places. Then, Liao civilization(遼河文明) of the oldest civilizations have been proposed. The heart of the Liao River civilization is a Hongshan culture(紅山文化) is a culture of the Neolithic. The archaeological site at Niuheliang(牛河梁) is a unique ritual complex associated with the Hongshan culture. Guo Da-shun see the Hongshan culture as an important stage of early Chinese civilization. And he said that Hongshan culture is believed to have exerted an influence on the development of early Chinese civilization and Manchulia. Especially Chinese excavators have discovered an underground temple complex -- which included an altar -- and also clay female head in Niuheliang. They assert that it is representation of Chinese original the ancestral temple of the royal family. Chinese scholar said that some part of Hongshan culture(紅山文化) and Liao civilization(遼河文明) were connected to Koean neolithic culture anmd bronze age culture. It means that from pre-historic age Chinese culture had influenced to Korean culture. Also Liao civilization assert that the Kitan(契丹) and the Manchurian(女眞族) is one of Chinese Nation. And so many relics of the civilization of the Liao River Valley exhibited in the Lianoning provincial museum. But Korean scholar thought quite the opposite. They said that the culture of Liaodung region is distinguished central china culture. So we must research the culture of Liaodung region and we must do our best to solve the problems which confront us now.

19세기 북방 강역에 대한 인식

강석화(Kang Seok-Hwa) 부산경남사학회 2007 역사와 경계 Vol.65 No.-

In 19th century, the northern area of Pyeongando province and Hamkyeongdo province were cultivated and population increased. The intellectuals who had respect to northern territory argued that Liaodung should be reclaimed and Tumen river was not the border between Joseon and China. They thought that the real border was Bungye - it meant the border - river. This perception was the background of Gando problem between Joseon and Qing in 1880's. But it was not correct conception and couldn't be a definite proof of territorial dispute.

근대 동아시아 세계의 상호인식과 자의식 ; 가린-미하일로프스키의 여행기에 비친 1898년의 한국 -『한국, 만주, 요동반도 기행』과 『한국의 민담』 -

이희수 ( Hee Soo Lee ) 수선사학회 2005 史林 Vol.0 No.23

고조선 중심지의 위치 문제에 대한 쟁점과 과제

송호정(Song, Ho-jung) 한국역사연구회 2015 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.98

The most important thing that should be considered in Go-Joseon studies is the possibility that the territory of Go-Joseon could have shifted as time went on, that the feature of the Go-Joseon realm could have had different shapes in different periods. The history of Go-Joseon shows two phases: the Bronze culture era when the Go-Joseon people still used Bipa-shaped bronze daggers, and the Iron culture era when Go-Joseon achieved the status of a ‘State.’ From this, we can easily see the importance of acknowledging the fact that there should have been ‘periodic changes’ in the Go-Joseon realm, when we try to approach its history from an academic viewpoint. In the early phases of the Ancient period, borderlines were not that distinctive as they are today. Between states and political entities, incredibly large areas remained unpopulated. Go-Joseon’s western border area in particular is believed to have been more than fluid. And there were various tribes living in the vicinity. So, trying to dictate the Daedong-gang river area as the (Western) border of Go-Joseon, or arguing that Go-Joseon’s realm engulfed the entire Manchu region as well as the Northern part of the Korean peninsula, the “entire time” from beginning to end, is simply unrealistic. Scholars and the public should refrain from considering ‘regional deployment of tribes’ or the ‘range of [their] cultural influences’ as indicators of parameters for an actual political territory. Perceiving the entire realm that shared the Bipa-shaped bronze dagger culture directly as the political territory of Go-Joseon is nothing but an academically inappropriate misconception. The Daedong-gang river in the Pyeong’yang region should not be excluded from the early-stage realm of Go-Joseon, while including not only the Liaodung(遼東) region but also the Liaoshi(遼西) region in Go-Joseon’s supposed realm of influence is simply without sufficient empirical basis.

연남생 투항 이후 고구려 서북부 성곽방어체계의 붕괴과정과 그 영향

오진석(吳珍昔) 한국역사연구회 2021 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.122

고려 공민왕대 정부 주도 교역의 여건 및 특징

이강한(Lee, Kang-hahn) 한국학중앙연구원 2011 한국학 Vol.34 No.4