정도전의 경학관과 성리학적 질서의 지향

도현철(Do Hyeon-chul) 한림대학교 태동고전연구소 2008 泰東古典硏究 Vol.24 No.-

정도전은 주자의 사서오경(四書五經)의 주석(註釋)을 받아들이고, 세계와 인간, 사회를 성리학의 리기(理氣), 태극(太極), 성정(性情) 으로 설명하였다. 《대학》과 《중용》을 통하여 천도(天道)와 인도(人道)를 재확인하고 《논어》와 《맹자》를 통하여 유학의 경세 론(經世論)을 이해하였으며, 오경(五經)을 통하여 수기치인(修己治 人)의 학을 말하고 도통(道統)을 제시하였다. 정도전은 《주례》에 의한 중앙집권체제와 재상정치론을 제시하 였다. 불교를 이단으로 비판하였고, 주자가례의 시행을 통하여 유교의 예적 질서를 확립하고자 하였으며, 성리학의 명분론(名分論) 및 춘추대의(春秋大義)와 천리인욕설(天理人欲說)을 기초로 의(義)와 공(公)에 의한 공적 관계를 내세웠다. 그런데 정도전은 정치적․사상적으로 제대로 평가받지 못했다. 왕자의 난을 일으켰다는 이유로 반역, 간신으로 죽임을 당하고, 태종이 즉위하면서 정도전의 부정적인 평가는 확립되었다. 문묘종사(文 廟從祀)에 배향되지 못하였고, 김종직, 신흠, 허균과 같은 조선 유학자들은 정도전을 부정적으로 인식하였다. 이는 정도전이 모반을 꾀하였다는 점이 국가의 공식적인 사실로서 인정받게 되고, 성리학의 도통(學統)을 학문 수수(收受)의 사실 여부나 학문 업적보다는 의리(義理) 정신의 실천에 그 기준을 삼은 결과였다. 조선시기에 정도전을 부정적으로 인식해도, 사상면에서 달리 볼수 있는 여지가 있다. 정도전과 동시대 유학자인 권근이 평가하고, 500여년이 지난 지금의 정도전 연구에서 인정하듯, 정도전이 불교를 배척하며 성리학을 진흥한 공을 받아들일 수 있기 때문이다. In this article, the bases of Jeong Do Jeon s philosophy in terms of Confucian classic texts, and the characteristics of his political ideas(政治思想), are examined. Jeong Do Jeon explained Ju Hi s annotation(註釋) of Four texts and Five classics(四書五經), and the issue of humans and the society, with concepts such as Ih-Gi /理氣(Ih and Gi elements of the universe), Taegeuk /太極(Taegeuk principle of the universe) and Seongjeong /性情(nature of human beings). He reasserted Confucianism s Way of the universe (天道) and Way of the humans(人道) through Daehak and Jungyong, understood Confucianism s suggestion of how to govern the world(經世論) through Noneo(Confucius words) and Maengja(Mencius words), and commented upon the task of building one s character and then leading the others( 修己 治人 ) and suggested the line of legitimacy(道統) , through his interpretation of the Five classics(五經). Jeong Do Jeon presented a centralized format of political governance and a concept of governance led by the ministers, based upon the teachings of Juryae/周禮. He criticized Buddhism as heresy, tried to establish a protocol-based Confucian order by implementing the dictations of Juja Garyae throughout the society, and supported a public and official relationship between people & entities built upon righteous(義) & public(公) elements, based upon the notion of a righteous cause(名分論) , Chunchu s grand righteousness(春秋大義) and the theory of Universe s reason and humans desire(天理人欲說) of Neo-Confucianism. Yet in subsequent periods Jeong Do Jeon s philosophy was not appreciated for what it was worth, in terms of politics and philosophy. In a political reality, he was killed as a treacherous figure under the charge of treason and of staging the insurrection of the princes, and after King Taejong rose to the throne a negative evaluation of his actions became complete. He was not admitted into the Munmyo/文廟 shrine and was not paid any respect in its services(從祀). A lot of Seoweon/書院 schools were erected, yet his achievements and their academic values were not reevaluated. Kim Jong Jik or other Sarim figures who were faithful to Neo-Confucianism, and Joseon dynasty Confucian scholars like Shin Heum or Heo Gyun also maintained a negative attitude toward Jeong Do Jeon. This means that the charges that Jeong Do Jeon faced, committing treason, was established as a nationally official fact. It was a result of the Joseon society, which embraced Neo-Confucianism as its own doctrine(國是), establishing the line of legitimacy in Neo-Confucian studies(學統), neither with the criteria to base such line upon facts regarding actual exchanges(收受) of studies nor with individuals accomplishments, but with the criteria to base such line upon an obligatory determination to realize the spirit of righteousness(義理) in the world. Even if he had been negatively viewed for the duration of the Joseon dynasty period, we can still reevaluate his philosophy in many different ways. No matter what kind of negative reviews had been suggested over the years, Jeong Do Jeon should be noticed for his vetoing Buddhism and promoting Neo-Confucianism, as had been already acknowledged by Confucian scholar Gweon Geun who lived in the same period with Jeong, by Lee Deok Mu who lived in the latter half period of Joseon, and by many people who still study Jeong s thoughts after some five hundred years.

대책문을 통해 본 조선초기 군주성학론

도현철(Do, Hyeon-Chul) 연세대학교 국학연구원 2018 동방학지 Vol.183 No.-

This paper focuses on the historical fact that the name Geunjeongjeon(勤政殿), created by Chung Do-Jeon(鄭道傳), means “diligence helps governance”, and he set a theme about monarchies’ diligent governance for the civil service examination in the 5th Year of Taejo, and then aims to examine the political ideas of the Joseon Dynasty through analyzing the answer sheets written by Kim Ik-Jung(金益精) who was the top examination passer that year. Chung Do-Jeon established the goal for political systems and ideas of the Joseon Dynasty and suggested the ideal monarchy which was essential in managing the monarchy-state. His viewpoint of monarchy was found out while Hangyang City Wall was constructing at the time of the founding of the country. The construction of Gyeonbokgung was completed in the 4th year of Taejo(1395) and the name of Geunjeongjeon, which means “diligence helps governance” indicated the Neo-Confucian ideal for monarchy. Chung Do-Jeon asked what the ways of practice for monarchies’ diligent governance are as a theme for the civil service examinations. Kim Ik-Jung, the top examination passer, suggested in his answer sheets that monarchies should practise the diligent governance on the basis of the Neo-Confucianism, and they should possess sagacious judgements of the right policy to be conducted diligently, and that they should open the offices to the wise men in order to be helpful to monarchies’ sagacity, and that they should strive to figure out people’s actual circumstances, and that they should not be contrary to the most pressing agenda and the late King’s precedents. This is what Kim Ik-Jung organized diligent governance by appealing to Neo-Confucian Sung-Hak(聖學, Learning of the Sage) according to Chung Do-Jeon’s ideal for monarchy. 본고는 정도전이 태종 4년에 근정전의 의미를 설명하면서 군주의 근면 정치를 제시하고, 태조 5년에 과거시험 문제로 군주의 근면 정치를 제시했다는 점에 착안하여, 태조 5년 과거 시험의 장원 급제자인 김익정의 답안지를 분석하여 조선의 정치이념을 살펴본 글이다. 조선왕조의 정치체제와 정치이념의 방향을 설정하였고, 왕조국가의 정치운영의 핵심인 이상군주론을 제시하였다. 정도전의 군주관은 조선왕조 건국기에 한양 도성 건설 사업의 과정에서 나타났다. 1395년(태조 4) 9월 경복궁이 완성되고, 근정전이라는 명칭을 통해 군주의 근면 정치라는 성리학적 군주상이 제시되었다. 다음 해인 1396년(태조 5) 5월 과거 시험 문제에서 정도전은 시험 문제로 군주의 근면한 정치의 구체적인 실천방법을 질문하는 것이었다. 이 시험의 장원급제자인 김익정은 성리학적 사유를 바탕으로 군주가 근면한 정치를 행하되, 근면하게 시행해야 할 올바른 정책에 대한 명철한 인식을 가질 것, 현자를 등용하여 군주의 명철함을 돕도록 할 것, 백성들의 실정을 파악하는 데 힘쓸 것, 당대의 급선무와 선왕의 전례에 어긋나지 않도록 할 것 등의 구체적인 방법을 제시하였다. 이는 정도전의 이상군주론에 부응해서, 김익정이 군주의 근면한 정치를 성리학의 성학론으로 풀어 정리한 것이다.

정도전의 사공학 수용과 정치사상

도현철 ( Hyun Chul Do ) 한국사상사학회 2003 한국사상사학 Vol.0 No.21

권근의 유교 정치 이념과 정도전과의 관계

도현철(Do, Hyeon-chul) 한국역사연구회 2012 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.84

Examined in this article is how Gweon Geun justified his serving of two countries, and why he decided to cooperate with Jeong Do-jeon. Gweon Geun wanted to make the world a place ruled by Confucianism instead of Buddhism. He compiled important academic points of the Confucian philosophy when he wrote Ib’hak Do’seol and 『O’gyeong Cheon’gyeon-rok』. He intended to establish Confucianism as a legitimate, one-and-only righteous form of study. He argued that Confucianism was the ‘real, substantial’ philosophy(實學) to lead the world, and criticized Buddhism as a heresy that would impede the world’s efforts to become a better one. Based upon a Neo-Confucian view of the world, he criticized Buddhism as a school of thoughts that did not recognize the objective world and its principles, and a mere form of belief that eventually forced people to ignore their own human obligations. In his eyes, Buddhism was a religion for the animals, as it allowed people to sever all the personal relationships, either between a king and a vassal, or between a father and son, by having them commit to a Buddhist way of life. He also argued that Buddhism considered all actions as of the mere heart(imagination), and did not acknowledge the existence of a principle or an obligation, from which the actions would generate, or upon which the actions would operate. With Neo-Confucian theories regarding the ‘Human nature(“Inseong, 人性”)’ and the ‘Law of Nature(“Cheon’ri, 天理)’ in mind, Gweon Guen considered morality to be very important, and hoped for an enlightenment to come to the people, based upon all that. He also wanted a world in which the people’s good nature would be more refined(or corrected from a corrupted state) with the concept of ‘Respect(Gyeong, 敬),’ so that morality could firmly be established. In order to maintain social stability and order, he preferred a character-building exercise based upon people’s moral nature and respect, to the employment of external forces such as law enforcement or institutional corrections. He wanted to reinforce school education, and modified the national examination system to prioritize Creative writing(製述), so that the Confucian concept of morality would dominate the people’s consciousness and living patterns. In the meantime, Gweon Geun decided to join the new dynasty and bring his plans to realize his political philosophy in motion. First, to support Jeong Do-jeon’s plans for a new dynasty in theoretical terms, he authored the foreword for 『Bulshi Jab’byeon』, and highlighted the book’s meaning. He depicted Jeong Do-jeon as a visionary who intended to establish a new country, and explained Jeong’s academic traits, from the perspective of the Neo-Confucian argument of legitimacy. Gweon Geun participated in the publication of 『Gyeong’je Mun’gam』 which did not thoroughly cited all the Chinese materials consulted in its creation. In 『Gyeong’je Mun’gam』, Jeong Do-jeon cited the Chinese texts yet marked them as his own thoughts, and Gweon Geun did the same, because he agreed with Jeong Do-jeon’s thoughts and accommodate his intentions. In short, Gweon Guen tried to establish an idealistic Confucian soceity, and joined the Joseon government, established a relationship with the powerful Jeong Do-jeon, and tried to accommodate his intentions.

이숭인의 정치활동과 성리학적 예제 인식

도현철 ( Hyeon Chul Do ) 퇴계학연구원 2014 退溪學報 Vol.135 No.-

Examined in this article is the political career of Yi Sung-in as well as his Neo-Confucian ideas, in order to determine the nature of changes that continued inside the political arena of Josoen, and also the philosophical community of the same dynasty. In the 16th year of King Gongmin-wang`s reign, when the Seong`gyun-gwan university was completed, Yi Sung-in joined the task of promoting Neo-Confucianism at the side of Yi Saek, and in the first year of King Wu-wang`s reign he opposed the government`s plan to greet the emissary from Northern Yuan. When General Yi Seong-gye returned with his troops from Wi`hwa-do he sided with officials such as Yi Saek who wanted to preserve the Goryeo dynasty, and was impeached by others like Oh Sa-chung. Yi Sung-in was very much active in supporting the employment and initiation of Neo-Confucian ritual protocols. He argued that those protocols should be observed not only in dynastic ceremonies but also in private households in occasions such as coming-of-age ceremonies, marriages, funerals and memorial services. In the early days, however, he argued that the number of ancestors should be determined by one`s rank, according to the opinion of Oh Jing, whose studies and position on protocols were quite different from those of Ju Hi. Yi Sung-in`s position was quite different from 『Ju Hi`s Household ritual protocols』, which dictated four generations of ancestors deserved memorial services. Later, Yi Sung-in, in consultation with Yi Saek, started to assume a position truthful and faithful to the position of Ju Hi. In the 2nd year of King Gong`yang-wang`s reign he wrote an epilogue for the Ritual protocol treatment(禮說) of Jin Ho(陳澔), who succeeded Ju Hi`s theories. Yi Sung-in served as an examiner of the dynastic examination even during the mourning period for his mother. This action was in direct violation of the dynasty`s law, but Yi Sung-in claimed that it was to obey the wishes of his living father. This controversy shows the conflicts that ensued the process of Joseon`s embracement of Neo-Confucian ritual protocols.

대책문을 통해본 정몽주의 국방 대책과 문무겸용론

도현철 ( Hyeon Chul Do ) 한국중세사학회 2009 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.26

고려말 經ㆍ權道의 활용과 體制 保守

도현철(Do-Hyeon-chul) 호서사학회 2004 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.37

려선교체기(麗鮮交替期) 『동헌집(桐軒集)』 복원(復元)과 자료(資料)의 특징(特徵)

도현철 ( Hyeon Chul Do ) 연세사학연구회 2007 學林 Vol.28 No.-

李穡의 隱仕觀

都賢喆(Do Hyeon-Chul) 한국사연구회 2006 한국사연구 Vol.133 No.-

The inclusion of the character eun(隱) in ones pen name was a very popular practice during the latter half of the Goryeo dynasty. In this regard. Yi Saek's penname was Mogeun(牧隱), and the un character was based on Yi's own interpretation of the term. This study attempts to identify the reasons why members of the sadaebu class either decided to serve as public figures or to live in seclusion during this period. by conducting a review of the standards which Yi Saek himself employed to classify the concepts of seclusion (eundun, 隱遁) and participation(chulsa, 出仕) in worldly affairs. Yi Saeks perception of Neo-Confucianism was heavily influenced by the notion of sugichiin(修已治人), the governance of the self and of others). In addition, Yi was also an adherent of the seonghak(聖學) school who regarded the observance of kyeong(敬) as the most favorable way to cultivate ones mind. Yi Saek also adhered to the standards laid down by Confucius when it came to the division of the notion of seclusion and participation in worldly affairs. Confucius once stated that a human could not live with birds and animals, and that as such he should live with other humans. He also stated that while one should serve in the government when the state to which he belonged was guided by the Way(道), one should seclude himself from worldly affairs when a state was not guided by the Way. Moreover, he also asserted that being rich and high-classed in a state which was not guided by the Way was just as humiliating as being poor and lowly in a state guided by the Way(道). Confucius then went on to state that although the Way of the Sage could not be brought about if one completely withdrew from reality, a wise man should base his decision as to whether or not to seclude himself from worldly affairs, or participate therein, on the nature of the prevailing circumstances. Yi greatly respected Confucius teachings. He believed that because a sage was an enlightened individual, he would know whether it was right to accept a government post or seek seclusion from the world. This was because a sages decision to pursue seclusion or participation was inherently based on the achievement of the Way. However, actual circumstances did not unfold as Yi Saek had intended. The new reality was one in which the ruling class was increasingly becoming lethargic and divided, political discipline was slipping, and social insecurity and turbulence reigned as a result of invasions by Red Turbans and Japanese marauders. This deepening political insecurity meant that a career as a government official was no longer a stable option. As such, although one intended to actively participate in the real world in order to bring about the Confucian Way, the possibility that he would be excluded from a government position, whether it be of ones volition or not, was now greatly heightened. Yi Saek made his position vis-a-vis the sensitive and dangerous political issues which emerged during the reigns of King Gongmin and King Wu very clear. To this end, he voiced his support for the rise to the throne of King Wu's son, King Chang: aired his position on land reform: and directly petitioned the Ming dynasty to come to the aid of the royal family of Goryeo against Yi Seonggye. Yi subsequently refused to take up a government post following the foundation of the Joseon dynasty. Under his pen name. which as mentioned above included the character eun, Yi Saek actively expressed his opinions on various worldly matters. This course of action was in great part the result of the fact that Yi regarded the notions of seclusion and participation as essentially the same action. and as being based on the same logic. As such. a sage could help bring about the Way through either seclusion or participation in worldly affairs Yi Saeks thought, which was exposed through his pen name that contained the character un, and which was based on his belief that a sage could choose seclusion or participation

김일출의 학술활동과 역사연구

도현철(Do, Hyeon-Chul) 한국사연구회 2015 한국사연구 Vol.- No.170