高句麗에 流入된 中國系人物의 動向

孔錫龜(KONG Seok-koo),琴京淑(토론자) 고구려발해학회 2004 고구려발해연구 Vol.18 No.-

Political chaos in China during the 4th and 5th centuries gave an obvious impetus to Chinese immigration to Koguryo. Kuguryo also captured Chinese by attacking adjacent towns. In this study, we collect archaeological data on the Chinese immigration to Koguryo. Archaeologically, we investigated tracks left by Chinese immigrants. In Jeonchukbun (tombs built with bricks), from some mural paintings in tombs, and Wadang (the end-most tiles of the eaves covered with roofing tiles), we saw several signs of Chinese immigrants. We were also able to check traces of Chinese immigration in Naklang and Daegangkun. After we confirmed the fact that Chinese were immigrated into Koguryo, we studied their movements. Chinese immigrants are divided into three groups. The first group is represented by people who were settled in Koguryo local areas by government officials. The second is the group of people who were arranged in the suburban areas of the capital of Koguryo. The third group of people is characterized by those who lived in Koguryo for some time and moved back to China later. We analyzed cases and the movements on Chinese who immigrated to Koguryo during the 4th and 5th centuries. Based on our current study, we may not deny that the Chinese immigrants contributed to the rapid development of Koguryo during these times. Some Chinese intellectuals who are familiar with a law-governed administration might play a role in paving the way for Koguryo's foundation.

덕흥리 벽화고분의 주인공과 그 성격

공석구(Seok Koo Kong) 충남대학교 백제연구소 1990 百濟硏究 Vol.21 No.-

현도군위치 옥저지역설을 다시 검토한다 - 『삼국지』 사료비판 -

공석구(Kong, Seok-Koo) 한국고대사학회 2021 韓國古代史硏究 Vol.- No.102

『삼국지』에 기록된 내용이 한국고대사에 기여한 것은 다시 말할 것도 없다. 하지만 일부 杜撰의 요소가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 필자는 현도군의 위치 문제를 재검토하였다. 현도군이 옥저지역에 설치되었다고 기록한 『삼국지』 동옥저전에 대한 사료를 근본적으로 분석하였다. 그 결과 『삼국지』 동옥저전 편찬자의 오류였음을 밝혀냈다. 편찬자는 불내성의 위치를 옥저지역에다 비정하였다. 한나라 시기 동부도위가 설치되었던 곳을 불내성이라고 기록하였다. 하지만 이는 잘못이었다. 한나라 시기에는 불내성이 아니라 불이현이 존재하였다. 불내성은 『삼국지』 편찬 단계에서 처음으로 나타나는 지명이다. 각종 역사서에는 불내성을 고구려의 수도였던 집안 지역에 위치한 것으로 기록하였다. 불내성은 한나라 시기 현도군과 관련되는 지역이기도 하다. 동옥저전의 ‘以沃沮城爲玄菟郡’ 기록을 분석하였다. 옥저지역의 과거 역사를 설명하는데 현도군과 연결시킨 것이다. 이 기록의 문제를 논증하였다. ‘옥저성’ 기록은 편찬자의 오류였다. 현도군은 고구려지역과 연결되며, 옥저지역과는 관계가 없다. 동옥저전 편찬자는 타국에 해당하는 동옥저의 과거 역사를 기록하는 과정에서 다수의 오류를 범했다. 부족한 정보와 인식 부족 등에 그 배경이 있음을 고찰하였다. 따라서 현도군의 위치를 옥저지역에 비정한 『삼국지』 기록과 이를 근거로 하여 주장된 종래 학계의 견해는 수정될 필요가 있다. This study focuses on the location issue of the first Xuantu commandery of ancient Korea. In the Chinese account of Records of the Three Kingdoms, its whereabouts were directed towards the Okjeo region, but I have re-examined the document with a critical perspective. The article revealed the fact that RTK has some fundamental problems, which stems from the carelessness of the ‘eastern Okjeo’ part compilation. The grounds for such opinion were found in ‘Bulnae’ fortress records. The compiler has recorded that the very establishment of eastern Duwei took place in Bulnae fortress, which is evidently misleading. Bulnae fortress first appears during the compiling process of RTK, and its location is well documented in various sources as Okjeo or Guknae fortress of Koguryo. I have analyzed and concluded that the real placement of the first Xuantu commandery was in Guknae, which was closely related to Xuantu of the Chinese Han era. Fundamental mistake has occurred as Bulnae fortress was wrongfully written as being located in Okjeo region in the ‘eastern Okjeo’ part of RTK. Such distortion has led to the unhistoric connection between Okjeo and Xuantu. Consequently, it is strongly advised that the previous theory that put the first Xuantu commandery in Okjeo area needs to be modified.

4세기 高句麗 땅에 살았던 중국계 移住民

공석구(Kong, seok-koo) 고구려발해학회 2016 고구려발해연구 Vol.56 No.-

4세기 고구려로 이주해 온 중국계인물에 대하여 살펴보았다. 문헌사료, 고고학 자료에 나타난 실상을 통해서 당시 고구려 땅에는 수만 명에 달하는 중국계 이주민이 살고 있었던 것으로 나타났다. 이들은 왕성이나 그 주변지역에 살았으며, 또는 멀리 지방에 배치되어 살았던 것으로 나타났다. 본고에서는 특히 이주민의 실상을 보다 구체적으로 이해할 수 있는 고고학자료 그중에서도 무덤자료를 검토하였다. 검토과정에서 공통점을 발견하였다. 그것은 이주민의 무덤양식에서 전통묘제를 변용하거나 거부한 흔적이 나타났다는 점이다. 다시 말하자면 전통적인 묘제를 襲用하지 않고, 자신이 처한 사회문화적인 상황에 맞추어 무덤을 변용하여 축조했다는 것을 알게 되었다. 먼저 왕성에 배치된 인물의 경우(우산하 3319호묘), 외부는 전통묘제인 적석총이었다. 하지만 무덤 안은 적석총이 아니라 전축분의 모습이었다. 이는 고구려의 행정력을 수반하는 직접지배를 받았던 현실을 반영한 것이다. 지방에 배치된 인물의 경우는 낙랑・대방군고지에 남겨진 고고학 자료를 대상으로 하여 검토하였다. 전통묘제인 전축분을 계승한 것이 아니라 전축분에다가 석재라는 요소가 덧붙여진 현상이었다. 심지어는 전축분의 전통에서 완전히 벗어나 석실봉토분을 새롭게 축조한 경우도 나타났다. 그들은 중원 여러 왕조의 연호(東晉, 後趙)를 채용하거나 또는 고구려의 것으로 보기 어려운 중국왕조의 관직을 채용함으로서 자신의 정치적 성향을 드러내고 있었다. 이와 같은 현상을 통해서 그 지역에 불어 닥친 사회문화적 변화상을 이해할 수 있었다. 이와 같은 변화상의 이면에는 고구려의 영향이 있었다고 판단하였다. 특히 낙랑・대방군고지에서의 이와 같은 상황은 고구려의 행정 통치를 바탕으로 하는 직접지배가 이루어지기 직전의 모습을 반영한 것이라 생각되었다. This paper has aimed at looking into Chinese personalities who immigrated to Koguryo during the 4th century. Documented and archaeological sources reveal that there were tens of thousands of residents of Chinese descent living in Koguryo during that period. They are believed to have dwelled around the capital or nearby areas, or placed in distant regions. This study has thus examined archaeological evidences, notably tomb materials, to further understand the realities of those people in detail. During the study, some commonalities were discovered among the tomb styles, which were that there were certain traces of them resisting against tradition. In other words, we now know that people of Chinese descent did not merely succeed the conventional tomb system, but built their graves in accordance with socio-cultural circumstances of their time. Features of such phonomena include the fact that although the exterior of tomb owners who were located in the capital took the form of traditional stone-layered, the interior actually is brick-furnished. This phenomenon reflects Koguryo’s direct rule. Regional tomb-owners, on the other hand, did not wholly accommodated the brick style but appears to have added stone blocks. Therefore, it is inferred that these situations ultimately show the local condition right before Koguryo’s firsthand administrative control.

대전ㆍ충남일대의 고구려유적

공석구(Kong, Seok-Koo) 백산학회 2005 白山學報 Vol.- No.72

Comprehending the historic sites and relics of Koguryo is the primarily important work in understanding the culture and history of the country. research on the historic materials are the key factors in understanding Koguryo culture. this report is inquire into hisoric sites and relics of Koguryo in the province of Daejeon, Chugnam. Earlier than, how to be related to history of Koguryo. Its result, this province is related to history of 5th-6th Koguryo. therefore hisoric sites and relics of Koguryo in the province of Daejeon, Chugnam related to history of 5th-6th Koguryo. Overall evaluation of hisoric sites and relics of Koguryo in this province has not been accomplishid. however distinctly character the relics is unreasonable matters.

고구려사·발해사의 논쟁점을 다시 검토하다 - 노태돈, 『고구려 발해사 연구』(지식산업사, 2020) -

공석구(KONG, Seok-koo) 고구려발해학회 2021 고구려발해연구 Vol.69 No.-

『광개토왕릉비』에 나타난 광개토왕의 왕릉관리

공석구(KONG Seok-koo) 고구려발해학회 2011 고구려발해연구 Vol.39 No.-

『광개토왕릉비』의 수묘인연호관련 기사를 장수왕대와 광개토왕이전 시기로 구분할 수 있다고 파악하였다. 본고는 이중에서 광개토왕이전에 해당되는 내용을 검토하였다. 광개토왕은 선대의 왕릉관리에 문제가 있음을 파악하고 이 문제가 장차 자신의 무덤까지도 영향을 미칠 것임을 염려하였다. 광개토왕은 선대 왕릉관리의 문제점을 일일이 지적하고 이를 타개하려고 실행에 옮겼다. 광개토왕의 걱정은 수묘인이 점차 감소하는 것이었다. 그의 대책은 세가지로 요약된다. 첫째, 先代王陵의 수묘에 착오가 생겨나 수묘가 제대로 이루어지지 못하는 현실을 직시하였다. 그 이유는 선대의 왕릉에 비석이 없어 수묘인에 섞갈림 현상이 있었다고 파악하였다. 이에 광개토왕은 祖先王의 릉에 모두 비석을 세우고 수묘인을 기록함으로서 착오가 생겨나지 않도록 하였다. 여기서 조선왕의 범위를 미천왕릉, 고국원왕릉, 소수림왕릉, 고국양왕릉으로 이해하였다. 둘째, 수묘인의 매매, 전매가 횡행하여 수묘가 제대로 이루어지지 못한다고 파악하였다. 그 배경은 직접수묘인 이외에 결원을 대비한 예비수묘인에 있었다. 예비수묘인이 매매, 전매의 대상이 되다보니 수묘역에 차질이 빚어진 것으로 파악하였다. 이에 광개토왕은 수묘인의 전매를 금지하는 법령을 제정하여 실행에 옮겼다. ‘앞으로는 수묘인을 전매할 수 없다’는 것을‘令’의 형태로서 제도화하였고, 또한 수묘인을 사들인 자에 대한 형벌조항도‘令’의 형태로 제정하였다. 하지만 광개토왕은 이와 같은 조치들에도 만족하지 못했다. 마지막으로 광개토왕이 선택한 것은 수묘인에 대한 전면적인 개편이었다. 광개토왕은 자신이 몸소 출정하여 빼앗아 온 韓穢人에게 자신의 무덤관리를 맡길 것을 아들(장수왕)에게 부탁하였다. 하지만 장수왕은 이와 같은 광개토왕의 부탁을 그대로 이행하지는 못했다. I studied the article related to tomb keepers’연호 of the tombstone of King Kwanggaeto’s royal tomb, and examined records applicable to former times of King Kwanggaeto. King Kwanggaeto grasped that there were problems in maintaining his predecessors’royal tombs, and was concerned about that the problems would influence on his own tomb in the future. He pointed out the problems in maintaining his predecessors’royal tombs one by one, and put into practice to break through them. His measures can be summarized into three points. First, he faced up to reality that there were some mistakes in keeping tombs, and so keeping tombs did not go well. He understood that this was because the tomb keepers were confused because there were no tombstones at his predecessors’royal tombs. Accordingly, King Kwanggaeto kept from causing mistakes by erecting tombstones at all ancestral kings royal tombs and recording the tomb keepers. Second, he grasped that keeping tombs did not go well because selling and buying and monopoly of tomb keepers were prevalent. He understood that this was because reserve tomb keepers who were transferred temporarily for the position of keeping tombs became the object for selling and buying and monopoly, and so the position of keeping tombs stumbled. King Kwanggaeto, hence, enacted a law to prohibit monopoly of tomb keepers and put it into practice. King Kwanggaeto, however, was not satisfied with such measures. Finally, King Kwanggaeto chose to reorganize tomb keepers completely. He asked his son(King Jangsoo) to give Han-ye(韓穢) who he himself went to war and captured charge of taking care of his tomb.

『集安高句麗碑』의 발견과 내용에 대한 考察

孔錫龜(KONG Seok-koo) 고구려발해학회 2013 고구려발해연구 Vol.45 No.-

고구려 왕릉을 수묘하기 위해 세워진 고구려비가 중국 집안에서 발견되었다. 집안은 고구려의 왕성, 왕릉이 소재했던 곳이다. 이 발견은 4~5세기 고구려사를 새롭게 이해할 수 있는 단서를 제공하고 있다. 이 비석의 발견으로 인하여 고구려의 수묘제와 관련하여 『광개토왕릉비』에 기록된 내용들이 모두 사실이라는 것을 알게 되었다. 그 내용은 선대왕의 무덤에 비석을 세운 사실, 수묘인의 매매 및 전매금지령의 시행과 처벌규정을 제정한 사실 등을 들 수 있다. 하지만 『광개토왕릉비』에는 보이지 않는 용어들이 있어 당시 수묘제의 실상을 좀 더 구체적으로 이해할 수 있는 단서를 제공해주고 있다. 분석 결과, 이 비석은 광개토왕 시기에 건립된 것을 알게 되었다. 이 비석은 광개토왕이 祖先王陵에 건립한 비석 가운데 하나일 것이다. 이 비석의 건립목적은 왕릉수묘의 원활한 유지와 운영을 위한 수묘비로서 파악하였다. 나아가 이 비석의 주인공을 비석에서 가장 가까운 지점에 위치한 천추묘로 비정해 보았다. 『집안고구려비』에는 독자적인 기록이 보인다. 이들 기록을 분석하여 몇 가지 새로운 사실을 알게 되었다. ‘四時祭祀’용어를 통해서 『광개토왕릉비』 건립 이전 시기에 국가제사, 수묘제의 개편이 시행되었음을 추정할 수 있었다. ‘烟戶頭 ?人名’용어를 통하여 고구려왕릉에 20家의 수묘인이 배치된 사실을 알게 되었다. ‘自戊□定律敎□發令’ 용어를 통하여 수묘관련 율령의 제정 시기를 추정할 수 있었고, 『광개토왕릉비』에 기록된 율령관련 기록과 상호비교가 가능하게 되었고, 이 분석을 통해서 『집안고구려비』가 『광개토왕릉비』보다 이전에 건립되었음을 알 수 있었다. 그렇다면 『집안고구려비』는 현존하는 最古의 고구려시대 비석이라는 의미를 갖게 된다. Recently, a new Koguryo stele monument was unearthed in Jian, China. Jian is the location of the ancient capital of Koguryo and its royal tomb complexh. iTs fresh founding is currently known to provide certain clues to understand 4-5th century Koguryo history from a rather different perspective. The discovery eventually confirms the fact that the tomb-guarding system inscribed on the great stele of king Gwanggaeto is indeed authentic. The tobm-guarding system illustrates that the monument was erected at the tombs of former kings, execution of laws forbidding buying and selling of tomb guardians, and formulation of punimshent of legal violations. However, the latest monument also reveals several new terminologies which were previously not identified on the Gwanggaeto stele, which then helps to crystallize the realities of tomb-guarding structure of the contemporary period. The study results of the new monument are as follows. This stele was founded during the reign of king Gwanggeto. The monument was probably one of the steles arranged for the tombs of predecessors by Gwanggaeto the Great. The motive seems to be a kind of landmark for the amicable maintenance and management of the royal tombs. In this research, it is speculated that this stele belongs to the Cheonchu tomb, which is the closest to the stone. Also, additional terminologies and phrases from the new stele were analyzed, which generated colorful interpretations of the Koguryo tombsn ad ancestral ritual systems.

안악 3호분의 주인공과 고구려

孔錫龜(Kong, Seok-Koo) 백산학회 2007 白山學報 Vol.- No.78

An-ak 3 ancient tomb has been registered in the international heritage. I inquired into the problem to compare and decide the owner of An-ak 3 tomb. The study adopted its method to arrange the research achievements which had progressed in the meantime and to classify them into the theory of Koguryo royal tomb and the one of Dongsu tomb. I developed my point of argument from a viewpoint to insist on the theory of Dongsu tomb in which I had persisted so far of two arguing theories. Based on that, I examined what kind of meaning the problem of the owner of An-ak 3 tomb had had in the Koguryo history in the 4th century. It is presumed that the problem of the owner of An-ak 3 tomb is the crucial clue to understand the developing process of the Koguryo history in the 4th century. I do not think that I have reached the historical truth by examining the problem of the owner of An-ak 3 tomb. I think that there are many rooms in my assertion to be complemented and filled up. I am waiting for that the relevant archeological specimens will be increased as well. On the other hand, it is the real situation that the controversy of the owner of An-ak 3 tomb has been divided into the theory of Koguryo royal tomb and the one of Dong-su tomb, and both sides are supplementing their own theories. It is, however, considered that they concentrate on the problem of the owner so much that they overlook other factors about An-ak 3 tomb. In fact, we do not fully recognize the historical truth contained on the splendid and diverse wall paintings portrayed in An-ak 3 tomb. I, therefore, make a diagnosis that the problem of the owner would be more clear after carrying out a concrete analysis on various materials of the wall paintings of An-ak 3 tomb.

集安지역 高句麗 王陵의 造營

孔錫龜(KONG Seok-koo) 고구려발해학회 2008 고구려발해연구 Vol.31 No.-

This paper examines the contents related to the construction of Koguryo royal tomb(王陵) in the area of Jian(集安); the situation developed after death of Koguryo kings by the way of archaeology and documents. These are issues about conditions of location of a royal tomb, time, period, size, and method based on the construction of a royal tomb. This will be the required work that should be investigated prior to the study of Koguryo royal tomb. The conclusion will be replaced by arranging the examined contents earlier. Koguryo kings had not been buried immediately right after death. Kings were buried after about 3 year temporary burial. During this period, various details related to the construction of royal tomb had been proceeded. The situation of the burial place of Koguryo kings can be assumed from the royal title. In particular, in case of the king who used the royal title with the name of the burial place, more concrete assumption is possible. There may be several things about the condition of a royal tomb, and yet it is considered that its size is the most influential condition at the present situation. The construction of a royal tomb started after the king had passed away. In case of Kwangaeto the Great(廣開土大王), he was buried 23 months after his death. It is presumed that the size of royal tombs is more than the fixed one. The argument on the size is connected with the one on that how many kings had existed in the area of Jian(集 安). It is assumed that its size is at least more than 30m. But there will be an exception in case of the king who had been replaced because of rebellion. What did royal tombs look like? It is known that all royal tombs in the area of Jian(集安) are stone-piled tombs. The interior arrangements of stone-piled tombs used to be wooden structures and were gradually replaced by stone structures(a stone chamber). The information on the royal tomb made of stone chambers is relatively well-reserved. It is hard to trace the information on the previous royal tomb because the original had been destructed. It is, however, conceived that a touch of a clue can be found from the structure of the burial chamber of the Great king’s tomb. House-shaped stone coffin box is placed in the stone chamber of the Great king’s tomb. I understand that it is because the influence of the traditional burial custom had been extant. It is, accordingly, grasped that the interior structure of a royal tomb at the time to build up with wooden structures had a house shape. In other words, it might be built in the way that they had made house-shaped wooden structures and then covered them with roofing tiles and their side tiles to protect the establishments. The lifestyle during the lifetime had been extended as the same as before after death.