Deforestation and Islamic Ethics: A Search for the Eco-Religious Links between Islam and Sustainable Development in Indonesia

KIM, Yekyoum Korea Institute for ASEAN Studies 2021 Suvannabhumi Vol.13 No.2

Indonesia has undergone the rapid deforestation largely as a result of practical consequences of human overexploitation of the forest. Between 1950 and 2015, around 43% of the forest area in Indonesia had been lost (68.0 million hectares). The process of deforestation has partly been a response to the rapidly intensifying 'global' and 'domestic' economic demands. Deforestation in Indonesia is also indirectly due to 'materialism-driven' value system and the corresponding weakening of Indonesian ethics. Therefore, given that socio-cultural expressions of modern Indonesian value systems have mostly taken place within a framework of Islam, the aim of the paper is to attempt to find Islamic ethics in general, which can provide the basis of ecological ethics to prevent rapid deforestation in Indonesia. The paper is composed of the followings. First, following the 'Introduction', it outlines the historical process of deforestation in Indonesia and also its corresponding socio-economic contexts. Then it moves on to talk about ecological ethics in general, thereby emphasizing that the phenomenological problem of deforestation needs to be conceived at a philosophical level beyond ecological phenomena. After discussing the ecological ethics, the paper proceeds to examine Islamic ethics as a canonical framework of ecological ethics in Indonesia. In doing so, it attempts to apply the Islamic ethics to the diverse Indonesian society and then considers 'Pancasila' as a potential framework for a pragmatic link between Islam ethics and Indonesian society. Having said that, in conclusion, the paper argues that there is a need for 'concrete' translation of 'Pancasila' into implementation in an Indonesian context, thereby various agents (government, policy-practitioners, concessionaires and also all the Indonesian) may agree in saying 'no' to overexploitation of the forest, to rapid depletion of the forest and to 'unsustainable' development practices.

An ethnographic study of ‘sanga awu’ in Minahasa, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Kim, Yekyoum(김예겸) 한국아시아학회 2017 아시아연구 Vol.20 No.1

본고는 미나하사의 문화와 전통이 이상으로 생각했던 가정/확대가족에 관한 토착적 가치체계를 고찰하였다. 이를 위해 미나하사의 ‘sanga awu’ (가정/확대가족; 축자적으로는 ‘같은 식사장소’)를 살펴봄과 동시에 ‘sanga awu’가 공동체적 삶에 있어서 ‘kumpulan’ (사회문화적 회합) 및 ‘mapalus’ (호혜적 협회)의 사회문화적 유형으로 실천됨을 논의하였다. 본고는 특정한 맥락 하에서의 미나하사 가정/확대가족의 일상적인 경험, 삶의 패턴이 양산되는 방식, 또는 문화적 혼종화의 맥락에 주목하기 보다는 이상화된 ‘sanga awu’에 대한 이념적이고 관념적인 문화적 가치와 관련된 내용을 중점적으로 다루었다. 본고는 우선 서론에서 1830년대 화란개혁주의선교회(NZG)가 미나하사에 도착한 이후 식민지 정책(Staatsblad 1861)과 그리스도교화 맥락 하에서 가정/가족에 대한 가부장적 가치 및 기대가 이념화되어 확산되었음을 간략하게 지적하였다. 이후 본론과 결론에서 식민정책과 그리스도교화 맥락 하에서 가부장적 가치가 확산되기는 했으나, 미나하사 가정/확대가족에 관한 토착적 문화가치체계는 가정/확대가족을 위계적이기 보다는 상호보완적으로 평가하며, 이는 식민지정책(Staatsblad 1861) 및 가부장적인 그리스도교적 이상화에 대한 반증임을 강조하였다. This paper examines the indigenous ideas of household and family as they are idealized in the context of Minahasan cultural values, ideas and expectations. In this regards, it examines the socio-cultural landscape of ‘sanga awu’ (Minahasan household or extended family; literally ‘same eating place’) and also discusses socio-cultural practices of ‘sanga awu’ in the forms of ‘kumpulan’ (socio-cultural gathering) and ‘mapalus’ (reciprocal institution) in community life. In so doing, it primarily deals with the idealized values and expectations of ‘sanga awu’, rather than lived experiences of ‘sanga awu’, the ways in which socio-cultural patterns of their lives are generated in a certain context, or their socio-cultural images in the context of cultural hybridization. This paper briefly points out in the ‘Introduction’ that along with the arrival of the NZGin the 1830s, the indigenous landscape of ‘sanga awu’ encountered newly-emerged patriarchal ideas of household and their dissemination by the formal regulations of the colonial government such as the Staatsblad [State Gazette] of 1861 and also through the teachings of Christianmissions. Then it argues in themain sections that the indigenous imagery of household, extended family and community life views the roles and status of husband and wife as complementary rather than hierarchical in the context of Minahasan cultural values, ideas and expectations. It runs counter to the Staatsblad [State Gazette] of 1861 and also the teachings of earlier Christian missionaries.

Deforestation and Islamic Ethics: A Search for the Eco-Religious Links between Islam and Sustainable Development in Indonesia

( Yekyoum KIM ) 부산외국어대학교 아세안연구원(구 부산외국어대학교 동남아지역원) 2021 Suvannabhumi Vol.13 No.2

Indonesia has undergone the rapid deforestation largely as a result of practical consequences of human overexploitation of the forest. Between 1950 and 2015, around 43% of the forest area in Indonesia had been lost (68.0 million hectares). The process of deforestation has partly been a response to the rapidly intensifying ‘global’ and ‘domestic’ economic demands. Deforestation in Indonesia is also indirectly due to ‘materialism-driven’ value system and the corresponding weakening of Indonesian ethics. Therefore, given that socio-cultural expressions of modern Indonesian value systems have mostly taken place within a framework of Islam, the aim of the paper is to attempt to find Islamic ethics in general, which can provide the basis of ecological ethics to prevent rapid deforestation in Indonesia. The paper is composed of the followings. First, following the ‘Introduction’, it outlines the historical process of deforestation in Indonesia and also its corresponding socio-economic contexts. Then it moves on to talk about ecological ethics in general, thereby emphasizing that the phenomenological problem of deforestation needs to be conceived at a philosophical level beyond ecological phenomena. After discussing the ecological ethics, the paper proceeds to examine Islamic ethics as a canonical framework of ecological ethics in Indonesia. In doing so, it attempts to apply the Islamic ethics to the diverse Indonesian society and then considers ‘Pancasila’ as a potential framework for a pragmatic link between Islam ethics and Indonesian society. Having said that, in conclusion, the paper argues that there is a need for ‘concrete’ translation of ‘Pancasila’ into implementation in an Indonesian context, thereby various agents (government, policy-practitioners, concessionaires and also all the Indonesian) may agree in saying ‘no’ to overexploitation of the forest, to rapid depletion of the forest and to ‘unsustainable’ development practices.

Epistemic Reflexivity and its Applications to Southeast Asian Studies

( Yekyoum Kim ) 부산외국어대학교 아세안연구원(구 부산외국어대학교 동남아지역원) 2021 Suvannabhumi Vol.13 No.1

With a view to contributing to the epistemological and methodological debates in Southeast Asian Studies, the aim of this paper is to examine critically the epistemic concepts and approaches in the social sciences and then to seek an epistemic reflexivity and its potential methodological applications to Southeast Asian Studies. Although the field of social sciences has attempted to search for a means of tackling the ontological and epistemological dilemmas in its major paradigms, Southeast Asian Studies still demands a more ‘actor-centered’ epistemic account of reflexive interaction between actors and social structures. Bearing in mind the need for a more ‘actor-centered’ epistemic approach, this paper continues to discuss the ‘epistemic reflexivity’ in the social sciences and its potential applications to Southeast Asian Studies. In this paper, I will consider ‘epistemic reflexivity’ as an alternative methodological orientation. It emerges as interlinked with the ontological standpoint of what is called ‘reflexive approaches’ and its application to the detailed ‘reflexive methodology’ which I am proposing in this paper. In doing so, this paper discusses the autobiographical experiences of the author arising from his ethnographic field research in North Sulawesi, Indonesia and their implication for a reflexive methodology in Southeast Asian Studies. In conclusion, the paper argues that we need a ‘more actor-centered’ epistemic framework to compensate for the epistemological and methodological dilemmas in the social sciences and the alternative framework will equip Southeast Asian Studies with a reflexive methodology relevant to the life-dynamics of the social world in the process of developing its inquiries, methodological technics, analysis, and validation.

Epistemic Reflexivity and its Applications to Southeast Asian Studies

KIM, Yekyoum Korea Institute for ASEAN Studies 2021 Suvannabhumi Vol.13 No.1

With a view to contributing to the epistemological and methodological debates in Southeast Asian Studies, the aim of this paper is to examine critically the epistemic concepts and approaches in the social sciences and then to seek an epistemic reflexivity and its potential methodological applications to Southeast Asian Studies. Although the field of social sciences has attempted to search for a means of tackling the ontological and epistemological dilemmas in its major paradigms, Southeast Asian Studies still demands a more 'actor-centered' epistemic account of reflexive interaction between actors and social structures. Bearing in mind the need for a more 'actor-centered' epistemic approach, this paper continues to discuss the 'epistemic reflexivity' in the social sciences and its potential applications to Southeast Asian Studies. In this paper, I will consider 'epistemic reflexivity' as an alternative methodological orientation. It emerges as interlinked with the ontological standpoint of what is called 'reflexive approaches' and its application to the detailed 'reflexive methodology' which I am proposing in this paper. In doing so, this paper discusses the autobiographical experiences of the author arising from his ethnographic field research in North Sulawesi, Indonesia and their implication for a reflexive methodology in Southeast Asian Studies. In conclusion, the paper argues that we need a 'more actor-centered' epistemic framework to compensate for the epistemological and methodological dilemmas in the social sciences and the alternative framework will equip Southeast Asian Studies with a reflexive methodology relevant to the life-dynamics of the social world in the process of developing its inquiries, methodological technics, analysis, and validation.

Facts and Fictions of ‘transmigrasi’ in Indonesia

KIM, Yekyoum(김예겸) 한국아시아학회 2019 아시아연구 Vol.22 No.1

본고는 인도네시아의 주요 개발정책중의 하나인 이주정책(transmigrasi)의 긍정적인 측면과 정책 수행과정에서 부가적으로 발생하는 문제점들을 고찰하고, 이를 통해서 인도네시아 이주정책 문제점들의 일반적인 요인은 이주정책 수행 과정에서 이주민들과 토착주민들의 사회경제적, 문화적 그리고 환경적 체계에 대한 인식과 이해가 부족한데서 기인함을 지적한다. 본고는 인도네시아 이주정책을 논하는 흔하지 않은 리뷰논문임을 감안하여, 특정한 맥락 하에서의 이주민들의 일상적인 경험 또는 삶의 패턴이 양산되는 방식의 맥락에 주목하기 보다는 이주정책에 대한 전반적인 재고(再考)에 초점을 맞추고자 한다. 향후 전자의 논의는 후자의 논의를 기반으로 후속연구가 진행될 것으로 기대된다. 본고의 구성은 다름과 같이 구성되어 있다. 첫째, 인도네시아 이주정책의 주요한 배경인 열도간 인구불균형분포의 문제를 거론하고, 이어서 이주정책의 긍정적인 측면과 부가적인 문제점들을 개괄적으로 지적한다. 둘째, 인도네시아 이주정책의 역사적 배경과 발전과정을 살펴보고 역사적 이주정책이 인구집중의 문제뿐만이 아니라 외방(Outer) 도서지역 (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, West Papua [Irian Jaya])에 대한 지역개발과도 관련성이 있음을 지적한다. 셋째, 이주정책의 긍정적인 측면에서 ‘인구의 균형 있는 분배’ 뿐만이 아니라 ‘낙후 지역 발전 시도’ 그리고 ‘국가 통합 및 국경지대 보강’ 등의 공헌들을 살펴본다. 넷째, 이주정책 수행과정에서 발생한 부가적인 문제들, 즉 ‘환경 파괴문제’, ‘하향적(top-down) 정책으로 인한 사회문화적 딜레마’, ‘악화되어가는 농업 문제’ 그리고 ‘복지문제’등을 고찰한다. 결론에서는 이주정책의 긍정적인 측면을 언급함과 동시에 부가적인 문제점들을 지적하면서 이주정책에 대한 지속적인 평가와 이주정책에 참여하는 이주민들과 토착주민들의 인식과 경험에 대한 세심한 관심을 강조한다. 이를 통해 궁극적으로 본고는 인도네시아 이주정책 및 다른 이주정책 사례의 허(虛)와 실(實)를 실용적으로 이해하는데 기여할 것으로 기대된다. The aim of the paper is to examine the contributions and attendant problems of the transmigration program (transmigrasi) in Indonesia, thereby pointing out that the most common reason for the failure of the transmigration program is the lack of appropriate understanding and appreciation of how social-economic, cultural and environmental systems of people involved function in the process of transmigration program. Given the fact that it is a rare review paper that discusses the transmigration program in Indonesia, it attempts to primarily deal with a ‘sensitizing’ account, rather than ‘lived’ experiences of the transmigrants, the ways in which socio-cultural patterns of their lives are generated in a certain context. It is expected that based on the former, follow-up discussions on the latter may be developed in detail. First, the paper emphasizes the uneven distribution of Indonesia’s population throughout the archipelago and move on to briefly say something about the positive aspects and attendant problems of the transmigration program in Indonesia. Secondly, this paper examines the historical background and development of transmigration program in Indonesia from the Dutch colonial period. Then it reveals that the historical background and development of transmigration program in Indonesia has something to do not only with the pretext of relieving population pressure but also with regional development in the Outer Islands (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, West Papua [Irian Jaya]). Thirdly, an attempt will be made to analyse in details both some contributions (balancing population density throughout the archipelago, promoting regional development in the Outer Islands, strengthening national integration/security) and attendant problems (environmental impacts, socio-cultural dilemmas of the top-down program, agricultural problems, deficiency of welfare) of the transmigration program. From this discussion, lastly, it will be argued that in implementing the following transmigration program appropriate understanding and appreciation of social-economic, cultural, and environmental systems of people involved are urgently needed. In this manner, this paper is expected to be a ‘practical’ contributor to comprehension of the success and attendant problems of the transmigration program or otherwise of the other such resettlement schemes.

Ontological ‘Reflexivity’ in Southeast Asian Cultural Studies

Yekyoum KIM(김예겸) 한국아시아학회 2019 아시아연구 Vol.22 No.2

본고는 사회과학 연구에서 수용하고 있는 삶의 세계(lifeworld; lebenswelt)에 대한 존재론적 접근을 성찰적으로 검토해보고, 사회과학 연구를 위한 이른바 ‘성찰성(reflexivity)’에 대한 탐구를 그 목적으로 한다. 이를 통해 본고는 궁극적으로 ‘성찰성’의 함의를 동남아시아 문화연구의 ‘성찰적’ 방법론과 연계한다. 본고는 저자의 민족지학적(ethnographic) 연구 경험을 토대로 작성되었으며, 본고의 목적상 동남아시아 문화연구를 여타의 다른 거시적 관점 연구 또는 정량적 연구와는 구별된 연구분야로 인식한다. 또한, 본고는 인류학적 관점에 대한 ‘지적 삼각측정(epistemic triangulation)’의 일환으로서 사회학적 문화연구의 존재론적 관점을 수용한다. 본고는 저자가 1999년 6월 – 2000년 7월 인도네시아 북부 술라웨시(Sulawesi)에 위치한 미나하사(Minahasa) 공동체인 또모혼(Tomohon)에서 동남아시아 연구자로서는 처음으로 수행한 인도네시아 현지조사기간 동안에 야기된 동남아시아 문화연구에 있어서의 존재론적 ‘성찰성’을 토대로 한다. 본고의 목적상 해당 현지조사 경험이 선택된 이유는 해당 현지조사 경험이 21세기를 시작하는 시점에서 주목해야 할 동남아시아 문화연구의 과도기적인 지적 특성을 전형적으로 보여주는 사례였기 때문이다. 본고는 논의의 배경적 설명으로서 현지조사지인 또모혼(Tomohon)에 대하여 간략하게 서술한 후, 대안적인 ‘성찰성’을 탐구하기 위하여 주요한 사회과학적 결정요인인 사회구조(social structure)와 인적 에이전시(human agency)의 관계성 분석과 관련된 세 가지의 사회과학적인 존재론적 패러다임을 다음과 같이 고찰한다. 첫 번째 패러다임 (기능주의와 구조주의)은 인적 에이전시가 사회구조에 의해서 규정되고 결정론적으로 제한된다는 ‘현실주의’ 가정에 기반하고 있다. 두 번째 패러다임 (해석적 행위자 관점)은 ‘현실주의적’ 가정에 대한 비판적 반응으로 대두되었으며, 삶의 세계 구성과정에서 사회구조와의 구도에서 발현되는 사회적 행위자들의 유연성(flexibility)에 주목한다. 세 번째 패러다임 (‘성찰적’ 접근)은 사회적 행위자에 대한 구조적인 영향력뿐만 아니라 사회 구조화 과정에서 발현되는 사회적 행위자의 능동성에도 주목하면서 ‘현실주의적’ 가정과 ‘해석적 행위자’ 관점의 통합을 시도한다. 특히 앤소니 기든스(Anthony Giddens)의 구조화(structuration) 이론과 삐에르 부르디외(Pierre Bourdieu)의 아비투스(habitus) 이론에 나타난 사회구조와 인적 에이전시의 관련성에 관한 존재론적 관점을 검토하고, 이 두 학자의 관점을 통틀어서 ‘감각화하는(sensitizing) 성찰적인 이론적 틀’이라고 명명하면서 ‘현실주의적’ 관점과 ‘해석적 행위자’ 관점에 대한 대안적인 통합적 패러다임이라고 제안한다 결론적으로 본고는 또한 ‘성찰적’ 접근의 전제들이 ‘현실주의적’ 패러다임과 ‘해석적 행위자’ 패러다임의 존재론적 딜레마를 극복할 수 있는 지적 수단이 되기는 하나, 삶의 세계는 여전히 행위자와 사회구조 간의 ‘성찰적’ 그리고 ‘동질적(homogenous)’ 상호작용에 대한 좀 더 체계적인 ‘행위자 중심’의 설명력이 필요하다고 피력한다. The aim of the paper is to reflexively examine the ontological approach to the lifeworld [lebenswelt] in Social Sciences, and then to seek an appropriate ‘reflexivity’ in it, thereby eventually attempting to connect its implication to ‘reflexive’ methodology for the academic enterprise, Southeast Asian Cultural Studies. Given the fact that the paper primarily reflects on experiences of ethnographic research in a Southeast Asian region, the term ‘Southeast Asian Cultural Studies’ is adopted with a view to distinguish it from other macro-level or quantitative Area Studies. Moreover, bearing in mind that it kicks off primarily from research experiences of an anthropological approach, in terms of epistemic triangulation, the paper also attempts to reflexively accommodate ontological properties of Sociological Cultural Studies. The core idea of this paper is based on the very first field research experience of the author as a Southeast Asianist in a Minahasan region, Tomohon, in North Sulawesi, Indonesia, between June 1999 and July 2000, and its ontological reflexivity of epistemic application to Southeast Asian Cultural Studies. The reason why the field research was selected and presented in this paper is because it clearly shows a stereotyped example of the epistemic nature in transition of Southeast Asian Cultural Studies at the beginning of the 21st century. After briefly presenting Tomohon as the setting of the paper, in search of an alternative ‘reflexivity’, the paper critically examines the three major ontological paradigms in Social Sciences in the analysis of the relations between the two main determinants of social outcomes, ‘social structure’ and ‘human agency’ as follows. The first paradigm [functionalism and structuralism] is based on the ‘realist’ assumption that human agency is largely determined and regulated by social structure. The second paradigm [interpretive-actor perspectives] emerged as a critical reaction to the ‘realist’ perspective; it emphasizes the flexibility of social actors in constructing their lifeworld in relation to social structure. The third paradigm [reflexive approaches] attempts to compromise between the two perspectives, stressing structural influences on social actors and the capacities of social actors to reconstruct social structure. Especially, having examined the ontological perspectives of the relations between human agency and social structure in Giddens’s concept of ‘structuration’ and Bourdieu’s notion of ‘habitus’, the paper suggests them as a ‘sensitizing’ reflexive theoretical framework that is an alternative paradigm to the ‘realist’ and ‘interpretive-actor’ paradigms. As a conclusion, the paper argues that the premises of ‘reflexive approaches’ seem to provide a means of tackling the ontological dilemmas in the ‘realist’ and ‘interpretive-actor’ paradigms. Nevertheless, the life-dynamics of people still demand a more ‘actor-centered’ account of reflexive and homogeneous interaction between actors and social structures.

미나하사 구전 전통과 아닷에 나타난 여성의 토착적 이미지

김예겸 ( Yekyoum Kim ) 한국동남아학회 2015 동남아시아연구 Vol.25 No.2

This paper examines the indigenous images of women as they are symbolized and idealized in Minahasan traditions with the aim of re-imagining them as ``active socio-cultural agents`` in the context of Minahasan cultural values, ideas and expectations. The primary sources used in the discussion are Minahasan narrative traditions and adat (customary laws) regarding kinship system, marriage, divorce and property. In so doing, it primarily deals with the symbolized and idealized values and expectations of womanhood, rather than lived experiences of Minahasan women, the ways in which socio-cultural patterns of their lives are generated in a certain context, or their socio-cultural images in the context of cultural hybridization. This paper argues that although the position of Minahasa women was never equal to that of men, the indigenous sources (narrative traditions and adat) point to their complementary role, and show not only their independence but also their importance as mediators, facilitators and coordinators. In other words, indigenous materials clearly provide us with a glimpse into the indigenous accounts of women as ‘active socio-cultural agents’ in the context of Minahasan cultural values, ideas and expectations. It is a countervailing evidence contesting the notion of women as ‘passive socio-cultural receivers’ in the shadow of cultural values and expectations. This paper is expected to be a significant contributor to comprehension of, in detail, the indigenous images of women in such marginalized Indonesian regions as Minahasa. In this regard, it is also expected to add a significant ethnographic case to Southeast Asian Studies on the indigenous images of women.