http://chineseinput.net/에서 pinyin(병음)방식으로 중국어를 변환할 수 있습니다.
변환된 중국어를 복사하여 사용하시면 됩니다.
영문초록 草衣禪師 硏究 동국대학교 일반대학원 선학과 진승환(知性) 草衣 意恂(1786-1866)은 조선후기의 대표적 禪師로, 적극적인 대외 활동을 기반으로 선의 활용 분야를 적극 개척하였다. 그러한 초의의 활동은 詩書畵茶의 다방면의 문화 예술 분야에서 禪文化의 창출이라는 평가를 받고 있다. 초의는 많은 유학자들과의 교유를 통해서 外學과 外緣을 넓혔다. 다산으로부터 시문과 주역을 배우고, 추사를 비롯한 실학자들로부터 실리적이고 실증적인 학문태도를 비롯해 실생활을 중시하는 것까지도 영향을 받았다고 할 것이다. 그러한 행적으로 일부 선행연구에서는 초의가 유학자들의 영향으로 그의 사상 및 문화를 형성시켰다는 평가가 있어왔다. 그러나 연구자가 초의의 생애와 시대배경을 비롯해 禪觀 및 修行觀, 그리고 그의 문화적 업적에 이르기까지 종합적인 검토로 살펴본 결과, 초의의 사상은 철저히 선의 본질에 입각해 있었으며 선사로의 삶에도 조금의 흐트러짐이 없었다. 그가 선보인 詩와 茶, 그리고 書와 畵 등의 문화 역시 선의 본질에 이르고자 하며, 그 세계를 그대로 담고자 했다. 즉 禪者로서 표현한 禪詩이자 禪茶, 禪書, 禪畵였다고 할 것이다. 또한 나아가 유학자들을 깨달음의 선세계로 이끌고자 하는 초의의 마음 또한 나타나고 있어 入廛垂手의 행적으로 보아도 무방하리라고 본다. 초의는 자신의 悟道의 法悅, 깨달음의 현상 등을 나타내는데 시를 빌어 표현하였고 여타의 문화 요소를 적극 활용하였던 것이다. 이는 달리 보자면, 조선후기 다소 완화된 측면이 있었다고는 하나, 오랜 기간 동안 진행된 억불정책으로 위축된 불교계의 시대적, 사회적 분위기 속에서, 선사 초의가 자신의 목소리를 낼 수 있는 유연하지만 효과적인 수단이 되었을 것이다. 초의가 강조한 禪敎兼修의 사상을 비롯해, 理事不二, 理事卽眞의 세계관, 不二의 禪門을 통해 一心의 근원세계에 이른다는 다양한 수행의 가능성을 제시한 것 등을 볼 때, 초의는 그 어느 선사들보다도 선의 본질에 철저했으며, 나아가 삶 속의 모든 일들을 수행으로 연결시키고자 했음을 엿볼 수 있다. 그러한 노력으로 조선후기 침체된 불교계를 禪理논쟁의 장으로 활성화시켰는가 하면, 시, 서, 화, 차의 다양한 문화적 접근으로 유학자들을 불법의 세계로 이끌었다. 이는 세간과 출세간의 삶을 달리보지 않는 불이의 선관을 토대로 한 초의의 깨달음의 산물이었으며, 祖師禪者로 때로는 유연하게 때로는 직설적으로 선의 세계를 자유자재하게 펼친 것과 다름이 없었다고 보는 바이다. ABSTRACT An Investigation of Seon Master Choui Jin Seunghwan (Jiseong) Seon Studies Department, the Graduate School at Dongguk University Choui Uisun (1786-1866), a representative Seon master of the late Joseon dynasty, actively pioneered in developing the practical use of Seon, standing on the basis of his positive outside activities. Due to his activities related to Seon, he is considered as the inventor of Seon culture in arts and culture, especially in the fields of poetry, calligraphy, paintings, and tea. Choui extended his non-Buddhist studies and human relationship through the exchange with many Confucian scholars. He learned poetry and prose, and the Yijing from Confucian Dasan Jeong Yakyong. Also Confucian scholars like Chusa Kim Jeonghui who studied practical matters in the Joseon dynasty inspired Choui not only through his pragmatic and positive attitudes of learning but also through his practical viewpoint of life. Due to this, some previous researches have shown that Choui shaped his thought and culture under the influence of Confucian scholars. However, when I performed a comprehensive study of Choui ranging from his life and historical background, to his views of Seon and Buddhist practice, and his cultural achievements, I came to a conclusion that Choui was thoroughly based on the essence of Seon from the standpoint of his thoughts, while living a life of no disturbance at all in his capacity as a Seon master. By unfolding the culture of poetry, tea, calligraphy, and paintings, Choui also sought to reach the essence of Seon with the intention of embracing the world of Seon. It can be said that his Seon culture manifested itself as Seon poetry, Seon tea, Seon calligraphy, and Seon painting in his capacity as a Seon adept. Furthermore, his Seon culture showed his intention of leading Confucian scholars to the world of Seon enlightenment; thus, it can be regarded as the act of stretching his hand of compassion to all sentient beings. Choui utilized poetry in expressing his joy in the dharma upon awakening to the truth and in revealing phenomenon of enlightenment, while actively employing other cultural elements. From another perspective, his Buddhist culture was possibly a flexible but effective means of making his voice heard in the historical and social circumstances of Joseon when Buddhism was withered by a long-lasting anti-Buddhist policy, even though such a policy was somewhat alleviated towards the latter part of the dynasty. Choui proposed various possible practices which was said to lead practitioners to the fundamental world of the one mind, through the ideas such as: the simultaneous cultivation of Seon and Kyo (teaching of the scriptures); the non-duality of principle and phenomena; the world view of the truth of principle and phenomena; and the non-dual approach of Seon. Taking this into account, Choui was more thorough in maintaining the essence of Seon than any other Seon masters, while wanting to link everything in life to Seon practice. Due to such efforts he made, Choui stimulated the stagnant Buddhist circle of the late Joseon dynasty by presenting an argument on the Seon principle while leading Confucian scholars to the Buddha’s teachings through various cultural approaches of poetry, calligraphy, paintings, and tea. This was produced from Choui’s enlightenment attained on the basis of the non-dual approach of Seon in which there is no difference between the mundane and supramundane life, It was also none other than a world of Seon which Choui, in his capacity as a master of patriarch Seon, unrestrictedly manifested sometimes flexibly or sometimes straightforwardly.
현대사회는 급격한 변화에 따른 부정적 측면과 긍정적 측면이 상존하고 있다. 이런 현실 속에 청소년은 스트레스와 관련된 심각한 질환을 불러일으키는 원인이 되기도 하고 청소년의 가치관을 혼란스럽게 하여 일탈 행위가 급증하고 방황으로 이어져 심각한 사회적 문제(청소년 자살률 OECD 회원국 중 열한 번째)로 대두되고 있다. 이러한 청소년의 문제를 해결하고자 종교계나 정부기관에서는 청소년 복지에 노력을 기울이고 있으며 최근 들어 유행처럼 번지는 치유라는 열풍으로 명상을 통한 인성교육, 심신의 치유, 건강증진 등 복지지원이 오늘날 더욱 절실히 요구되는 사안이다. 그러나 현재 사찰에서 실시하고 있는 템플스테이 등 일부 교육 프로그램들은 연구기관이나 종단에서 검증됨 없이 자체 프로그램을 개발 및 추진으로 프로그램 자체도 미흡할 뿐 아니라 강사의 질적 문제 등 다수의 문제점으로 인해 불교 포교에 역효과를 나타내기도 한다. 이처럼 필요에 부응하여 우리나라 청소년 복지가 불교 청소년 복지와 연계되어 딛고 설 기초를 제공하고 또 나아갈 방향을 모색하고자 우선 불교 청소년 복지의 이론적 배경을 살펴보았으며 다음으로 한국 불교의 청소년 복지프로그램 실태에 대해서 21세기를 살아가는 현재 청소년들의 생각을 알기 위해 설문조사와 인터뷰를 통한 직접적인 불교 청소년 복지프로그램의 실태조사를 하였다. 이를 바탕으로 통계에 근거하여 문제점을 알아보고 현실태를 직시함으로써 복지지원 프로그램의 효과적이고 효율적으로 충족시켜 줄 수 있는 체계적인 방법을 모색하였다. 마지막으로 청소년 수행 프로그램의 구체적인 예시를 들어 이해를 돕고자 반야심경과 위빠사나의 본질에 입각한 청소년 프로그램을 제시하므로서 현대에 범람하고 있는 다양한 프로그램들이 가지고 있는 한계를 극복하는데 본 연구가 조금이나마 도움을 줄 수 있을 것이다.
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch is the analects of the sixth patriarch Hui Neng, who is considered to be the one who actually founded the patriarchal meditation anew in Chinese Seon Buddhism, nd a Chinese classic. The purpose of this study is to consider no-thought, no-image and no-abiding in the Buddhist writings of The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch. To put it concretely, it aims to look into the origin and ideological basis of Three Non-being from the Theory of the Mahayana’s Sutra, figure out the mutual relation between Three Non-being and the characteristics and meanings of them as the attribute of heart at the center of the Sudden Enlightenment and Seeing Nature and help overcoming the limitations in this era. After considering Three Non-being of The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, the results as follows were obtained. First, no-thought is the nature of Buddha, which is the subject of awakening, and no-image and no-abiding are the fulfillment of emptiness. To be specific, no-image is the fulfillment of emptiness and no-abiding is the action of emptiness and enlightenment. Second, dwelling in tranquility and wisdom are not distinct from each other. It means that dwelling in tranquility is the main body of wisdom, and wisdom is the action of dwelling in tranquility. In other words, dwelling in tranquility is in wisdom when wisdom acts, and wisdom is in dwelling in tranquility in the state of dwelling in tranquility. Thus, no distinction is made between dwelling in tranquility and wisdom, and there is neither order nor relative importance. Third, Indian Buddhism’s traditional mode of Seon was changed from gradual cultivation which is about the Bodhisattva-practice and the result of it to sudden enlightenment which says that the true nature of things is different. In addition, the Buddhism passed down to the East emphasized dispelling delusion and going back to the truth from the first patriarch Dharma to the fifth patriarch Hongren, but the sixth patriarch Hui Neng said that realization of the self-nature was only sudden enlightenment and gradual cultivation since there was no right and wrong, no fuss or no stupidity. The meaning and value of Three Non-being of The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch obtained from the result of this study are as follows. Before the sixth patriarch, there was an Indian Buddhist idea that dwelling in tranquility was put before wisdom, but the sixth patriarch denied it. It says that the truth of Buddhism has only one figure and there should be no differentiation between wisdom and dwelling in tranquility. The three vehicles of learning, which is the teaching by Buddha, had been upheld faithfully before the sixth patriarch. However, the meditation which used to be about practicing dwelling in tranquility based on religious precepts and eliciting wisdom rolled into one, and sudden enlightenment appeared dramatically. That is why Hui Neng is called as the one who turned gradual cultivation, which was the existing traditional Indian Buddhist mode of Seon, into sudden enlightenment and sinicized it. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch has a treasure that makes all living things realize that they are Buddha and helps them live a life of Buddha, and Three Non-being is situated on the way to reach there. The treasure is non other than the Diamond self-nature, the nature of Buddha and purity. With manifestation of pure self-nature, Buddha’s wisdom in enlightenment becomes a bridge connecting the past and present to the future across the ages and in all countries of the world and a lamp lighting up Mahayana Buddhism. Thus, Three Non-being of The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, which is the subject of this study, becomes a way of life, the topic of life and a refreshing life-giving water to the human race living in the sea of pain from the perspective of non-duality―’Livings things are the Buddha’ and ‘Klesha is Buddhahood’ 『六祖壇經』은 중국선불교에서 조사선의 실질적 개창자라 할 수 있는 육조혜능의 어록이며 중국의 고전이다. 본 연구의 목적은 『六祖壇經』의 법문 중에서 無念·無相·無住를 고찰하는데 있다. 좀 더 구체적으로 말한다면 三無의 연원과 사상적 근거를 대승경론에서 살펴보고, 삼무의 상호관계와 돈오견성의 중심에 있는 마음의 속성으로서의 삼무의 특징과 의미를 파악함으로서 이 시대의 한계를 극복하는데 작은 보탬이 되고자 하는데 본 연구의 목적이 있다. 『六祖壇經』의 삼무를 고찰하여 다음과 같은 연구의 결과를 얻었다. 첫째 무념은 자각의 주체인 불성이며, 무상과 무주는 空의 실천을 의미한다. 자세히 말하면 무상은 공의 실천을 무주는 공의 작용과 깨달음의 작용을 의미한다고 볼 수 있다. 둘째는 禪定과 智慧가 서로 다르지 않다는 것이다. 즉 선정은 지혜의 본체이고 지혜는 선정의 작용이다. 다시 말해 지혜가 작용할 때 선정은 지혜에 있으며, 선정의 상태에 있을 때 지혜는 선정에 있기 때문에 선정과 지혜에 선후와 경중의 차별을 두지 않고 두지 않고 있다, 셋째는 인도불교의 전통적 선법이 수인증과(修因證果)의 점수법에서 일체법이 不二法이라는 돈오법으로의 대전환이다. 또한 동쪽으로 전래된 불법이 중국의 초조 달마에서 오조 홍인에 이르기 까지 망념을 버리고 진성으로 돌아간다는 사망귀진을 강조하였지만 육조혜능은 자성에는 옳지 않음도 없고 요란함도 없고 어리석음도 없기 때문에 자성(불성)을 깨닫는 것은 頓悟頓修하는 것일 뿐 점차가 없다는 것이다. 이상의 연구의 결과에서 『六祖壇經』이 가지고 있는 삼무사상의 의미와 가치는 다음과 같다. 육조이전까지는 선정이 먼저이고 지혜가 나중이라고 보는 관점 즉 선정을 통하여 지혜가 발현 된다는 修因證果적인 인도불교의 사상을 가지고 있었으나 육조는 이를 부정한다. 법의 실상은 오로지 한 모습이기 때문에 지혜와 선정에 구별이 있을 수 없다는 입장이다. 붓다의 가르침인 계정혜 삼학의 수행법이 육조이전까지는 충실히 지켜져 왔다. 하지만 계율에 의해서 선정을 닦고 선정에 의해서 지혜를 얻는 점차적인 수행법은 육조혜능에 의해 하나로 통합되는 돈오법으로 획기적인 전환을 하게 된다. 그래서 혜능을 기존의 전통적인 인도불교의 선법인 점수법을 돈오법으로 혁신시켜 중국화한 장본인이라고 하는 것이다. 『六祖壇經』에는 일체중생이 부처임을 자각하게 하고 부처의 삶을 살도록하는 보물이 담겨있는데 그 방향로에 삼무가 자리 잡고 있는 것이다. 그 보물이란 다름 아닌 금강자성이요 불성이며 청정심이다. 이러한 자성청정불의 발현은 붓다의 깨달음의 지혜가 동서고금을 관통하여 과거와 현재 그리고 미래를 연결하는 다리가 되어 대승불교의 밝은 등불이 되고 있다. 그러므로 본 연구의 대상이었던 『六祖壇經』의 삼무는 삶의 지표가 되고 세상의 화두가 되어 고통의 바다에서 살아가는 인류에게 ‘衆生卽佛’이요 ‘煩惱卽菩堤’라는 不二의 관점에서 시원한 생명수가 된다고 할 수 있다.
Truth is another aspect of freedom, the highest value that humans crave. And, it can be said that tree freedom represents ‘nirvana’. For thousand years, in the advanced civilizations of the various continents, diverse and in-depth thoughts to find the fundamental questions of the universe that finite humans could not dare to approach have guided the spirit of mankind, and humans have practiced meditation as the physical and mental training to get to nirvana. The Buddha, who had appeared in the time when mankind was wholly dependent on God, instilled a wonderful philosophy, which allowed them to escape from powerlessness and look at the nature represented by phenomena with the eyes of the abyss, into their minds at that time. And, the great idea became a culture that has reached its height across all the ages and countries of the eastern continent. The unique cultural thoughts of the Chinese had continued to develop in traditional Chinese rituals with the combination of the Hundred Schools of Thought’s ideological basis since the Confucius, but it developed into a trend of enjoying ideological amusements while considering that the underlying solution was in the truth. Therefore, it seems that philosophical Chinese, who regarded the middle path as the best value, would not have taken the middle path of Mahāyāna Buddhism strangely. Buddhism that had moved eastward is still established as the representative thought of Chinese continent, giving the answer to two truths(Paramartha and real existence of experiential) of something that can’t be named. This study looked into the reasons why NamJongSun, the Zen Buddhism of China, had been able to be the center of Chinese philosophy and religion, unlike Primitive Buddhism, with the following three factors. Firstly, Chinese Buddhism starts from Mahāyāna. ‘The occurrence of Mahāyāna Buddhism’ is also in line with the Chinese consciousness and the humanity that the Chinese pursue. It can be confirmed that the reason why Mahāyāna Buddhism could prevail in China’s long-established cultural basis was ‘diversity’. Mahāyāna zen developed in richer thoughts and consciousness than basics in the practice of Hināyāna zen was widespread by the diversity that made it available to respond to something everywhere. The root of zen with its strong vitality was deeply rooted in the Chinese continent and bloomed everywhere. Strictly speaking, the Chinese Buddhism called ‘Mahāyāna’, which had evolved from Buddhism, was newly blossomed. Secondly, Chinese Buddhism was reborn as China’s own Buddhism through fusion with the great Chinese traditional thoughts after the process of Geyi-Buddhism. Buddhism attempted to resolve conflicts and heated debates with traditional Chinese thinkers representing most of the traditional rituals handed down to the Chinese people for a long time through fusion and reconciliation while going through the transformation that does not deviate much from the doctrine of Primitive Buddhism born in India during the process of conflicting thought systems and ideas that had accumulated on the two continents due to Buddhism that had moved eastward. As a result, the size of the intellectuals, monks from a good stock, and the Buddhists has expanded, and the depth of Chinese thinking has deepened. Thirdly, it is the spirit of transcend Buddha and beyond the founder of a religidus sect of previous founders that may be called the crystal of thinking with Chinese philosophy in the Zen system of Buddhism. The practice of Josaseon is to explore one’s own infinite possibilities and humanity, to carry out religious purification constantly in the world of empty space, and to ask oneself about the answers without seeking them from the Buddha out of one’s mind, that is to say, to clarify that self-reflection corresponds to the nature of Buddha that has resulted in the expansion of the ideas of the Chinese who were considered microcosms. Also, it is derived that the truth of Laotzu and Chuangtzu is not far away as transcend Buddha and beyond the founder of a religidus sect of Josaseon is about Wandering by overcoming adults and surpassing founders. When the Zen of Buddhism was born as Zen Buddhism due to the transformation of Chinese thoughts as the traces of the Zen in India fluctuated, after The founder Boly dharma, numerous Buddhist priests of high virtue had emerged, extraordinary Zen monks were carrying out Zen to prosper their own denominations all over the continent while claiming they were well-qualified men of NamJongSun under the flag of their own doctrines. Indeed, it could be called the Warring States Period of NamJongSun or the Hundred Schools of Thought’s Era of NamJongSun. All human beings are inherently pure and true. And, everyone equals to the Buddha. Chinese NamJongSun that wanted to prove it could be at the center of mainland China through an in-depth research and a brilliant use with an intuition of intense and subjective humanity. And hopefully, it is expected that Korea’s Ganhwa Zen will accomplish the doctrine of a saint that establishes humanity as well as unexampled truth in the history of mankind.
‘인도의 대승불교 시대를 거쳐 중국에서 선종이 태동한 이후 초기 선종의 선법과 조사선의 성립 시기까지 明眼祖師들에 의해 심지법의 선법은 다양하게 설해 왔다. 초조 달마와 2조 혜가의 安心法門 은 벽관의 실천으로 공관을 제시했다. 이 선사상은 훗날 마조 이후의 조사선의 선법과 연관이 깊다. 또한 3조 승찬은 『능가경』을 바탕으로 하는 선법을 종지로 삼았다. 4조 도신은‘守一不移’5조 도신은 守心을 선법으로 가르침을 펼쳤다. 이들은 入道安心의 경지인 ‘자성청정심’을 추구하는 것을 가르침으로 전개하고 있다. 우두종은 도신의 방계 제자인 우두 법융에 의해서 개창되었다. 무심은 우두종의 핵심 종지로 대두된다. 5조 홍인은 본래 청정한 一心, 불성을 깨닫는 것은 守心에 있다고 밝혔다. 6조 혜능은 망념이 없는 청정심으로 無心한다면 불성을 볼 수 있다고 설했다. 혜능 이후 북종선과 남종선으로 나뉘면서 그의 제자 남악 혜충도 역시 무심을 주된 선관으로 주장한 다. 이처럼 선종의 시작인 달마로부터 조사선의 황벽까지 심지요문 또는 무심은 강조되어 왔다. 중생을 제도하는 선법을 무심으로 봤다는 것이다. 즉, 초기 선종에서 다양하게 제시되던 심법의 사상적 맥락이 끊어지지 않고 이어져 왔다. 그래서 心體의 근원적인 空性 과 현상적인 寂靜의 결정체로서 무심으로 볼 수 있다. 혜능 이후 임제종 태동하기 이전 정법의 법맥은 남악 회양-마조 도일 –백장 회해-황벽 희운으로 이어진다. 홍주종 사상의 핵심 종지인 평상심, 본원청정심 등도 황벽의 無心으로 귀결된 것이라고 논구한다.
Daehaeng is well known for her distinctive, innovative teachings and approaches to One Mind Dharma. The primary objective of this study is to investigate Daehaeng’s Seon/Chan thought from a genealogical viewpoint, illuminated by One Mind Dharma. Bodhidharma, the first patriarch of the Chinese Chan School, is said to “have transmitted only One Mind, not all the conditioned dharmas like precepts and givings, etc.” Similarly, Mazu also says that “what has been transmitted to China from Bodhidharma is the ultimate One Mind Dharma so that all of you may get enlightened.” One Mind Dharma, a fundamental backbone to East Asian Buddhist traditions, has been well documented as seen in the numerous commentarial works done by East Asian Buddhist scholarship, especially on the Awakening of Faith in Mahayana (AFM), a key Buddhist treatise that played a decisive role in bringing about the “emergence of Sinitic Mahayana.” However, it is not surprising to find asymmetries in the Seon/Chan literature that is devoid of the articulation of One Mind Dharma in the very ‘no establishment of words and letters’ Buddhist traditions. Despite lack of Seon/Chan literature on the One Mind Dharma, the Vajrasamādhi Sutra (VS) takes a unique place in the evolution of Seon/Chan traditions. It is because the VS contains important Seon/Chan elements of early Chinese Chan movements including Bodhidharma’s Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices. Furthermore, this sutra also shows the syncretic orientation to synthesize various philosophies of mind in the context of One Mind Dharma as found in the AFM. Wonhyo, a well known for his Commentary on the AFM (CAFM), wrote a crucial Seon/Chan treatise, Commentray on the Vajrasamādhi Sutra (CVS), at the last part of his lifetime. As well analyzed by Robert Buswell in The Formation of Ch’an Ideology in China and Korea, Wonhyo’s objective was to supply the foundation for a workable soteriology by providing a comprehensive system of meditative praxis. For this purpose, the groundwork of this venture was laid in the CVS by Wonhyo to directly link “the contemplation practice that has a single taste” to the tathāgatagarbha. This suggests that Seon/Chan thought can be placed squarely within the doctrinal matrix of the Sinitic Mahayana tradition and illuminated in the context of Wonhyo’s One Mind Dharma, i.e., a comprehensive system of meditative praxis developed especially in the CVS. We present Wonhyo’s One Mind thought primarily based on the CVS, AFM, CAFM, and Doctrinal Essentials of the Nirvana Sutra (DENS). First, Wonhyo’s One Mind Dharma is displayed as a complete harmony of Buddha-nature and prajñā. This way of formulating One Mind Dharma is important in Seon/Chan discourses to avoid some misunderstandings not uncommon in Seon/Chan praxis and studies as well. For example, we often find an argument about what is more essential between Buddha-nature and prajñā. Some support Buddha-nature while discrediting prajñā, and others maintain prajñā is the ultimate. There is also a theory that Huineng abandoned the Lankâvatāra Sutra to take the Diamond Sutra instead, implying the superiority of prajñā over Buddha-nature. In the framework of Wonhyo’s One Mind Dharma, all of these positions are viewed as lacking intrinsic essence, and nothing is abandoned nor absolutized. In this sense, it is analogous to perspectivism of genealogical methodology, a concept which holds that knowledge is always perspectival. This study also presents a comprehensive system of meditative praxis as an amalgamation of “the contemplation practice that has a single taste” and the tathāgatagarbha. It is displayed as two Seon/Chan praxis methodologies: the gate of Activating Enlightenment and the gate of Original Enlightenment. These two approaches to enlightenment are obtained from our thorough analysis of Wonhyo’s works mentioned above, especially the CVS among others. In this way, Wonhyo can be portrayed not only as a scholar monk, an eminent master of doctrinal harmony, but also as a Seon/Chan master, a de facto first patriarch of the Korean Seon School. This study also aims to reexamine the Chinese Chan thoughts starting from Bodhidharma up to two main branches formed after Huineng, i.e. Matsu and Shitou as well as their main descendants who played pivotal roles in the formation of Chinese Chan traditions. But it is really a formidable venture to understand the development processes of these various, dynamic but sometimes puzzling traditions in the lack of a coherent framework. We illuminate various Chinese Chan masters’ thoughts and approaches via Wonhyo’s One Mind Dharma including a non-dual harmony of prajñā and Buddha-nature, a framework of One Mind and Two Aspects, two gates of enlightenment, etc. In this way, we are able to see clearly that diverse, seemingly irreconcilable viewpoints of different Chan schools are placed within the doctrinal matrix of the Sinitic Mahayana tradition. For example, such perplexing issues like Gradual and Sudden in Southern and Northern Chan are revealed as different approaches to tathāgatagarbha. We also observe how One Mind Dharma is utilized for the purpose of a particular Chan school, as well as how a frame of One Mind and Two Aspects is established as a workable soteriology, etc. Based on the analysis here-in-above, we can now undertake our last enterprise to investigate Daehaeng’s Seon thoughts in the modern Korean Buddhist tradition. Daehaeng was chosen for this study because of unique features that her Seon thoughts and approaches are fundamentally built on the basis of One Mind Dharma. The essential tenet of Daehaeng’s One Mind Dharma is a complete harmony of Buddha-nature and prajñā achieved through non-duality. It is consistent with Wonhyo’s One Mind Dharma as well as Huineng’s non-duality. We also find that Daehaeng also presents two gates of enlightenment found in various Seon/Chan traditions. However, an important innovation is revealed in Daehaeng Seon with the concept of Juingong 主人空, a soteriological device to fuse Buddha-nature and emptiness. This is an approach consistent with Juingong 主人公, a traditional Seon/Chan methodology. But Juingong 主人空 is also an innovative approach to tathāgatagarbha since it has evolved from Wonhyo’s Great Essence and Great Functioning to be put into action in the capacity of an ordinary individual who need take care of everyday life.
신플라톤주의와 밀교의 수행 비교: 관상과 관불을 중심으로
The main idea of Plotinos(205~270) explains the outflow from “The One” and the return to it. His thought developed comprehensively under the influence of the Pythagorean school and mysticism, including Plato and Aristotle. In Enneades, he explains the three hypostasis called “The One・Nous・Psyche.” “The One” goes down “Nous” through the process of emanation, and “Nous” goes down “Psyche” through the same process. The prototype of “The One” is Demiurge from Plato’s Timaeus, who is the God and builder of the universe. “The One” explained by Plotinos is the first principle, the ultimate reality. Neoplatonism influenced the formation of the Christian theology, and Plotinos’ three hypostasis influenced the formation of Augustine’ trinity. This was key in the process of developing monotheism. This process is compared with contemplation of Eastern Orthodoxy and Esoteric Buddhism. Plotinos’ Chapter II of Enneades presents his views on the “on the Kosmos or on the Heavenly system.” He thought of the universe as a logos, which is also a world of stoicism philosophy and theology. The universe is not just a world, but a world of order and providence. Logos is a world of order and harmony, and describes it as a world of providence. Since then, it has been used as “think,” “reckon,” “speak,” “the meaning,” and “the ordering,” “calculation,” “prophecy,” etc. The meaning of the logos can be seen largely from a linguistic and cosmic perspective. Logos as a language contains truths in letters and sounds, and logos as a providence have rules of order and harmony. Dharma-dhatu 法界 is a Buddhistic universe. Dharma-dhatu of Hwaeom 華嚴 is the world of pratītyasamutpāda 緣起 and the world of emptiness 空. The Vairocana Buddha is a light, a Buddha that shines forever with the light of truth. Hwaeom 華嚴 symbolizes indrjala 因陀羅網, and this world represents the central position of the world. Dharma-dhatu is the world which causality occurs, that is, the world dominated by the law of causality. Dharma-dhatu is similar to the meaning of Logos. In the dharma-dhatu, dharma 法 means the law, measure of the Logos. Meaning of dhatu 界 can be explained by providence in the meaning of cause. The emanation of “The One” is generally compared to the light of the sun, which can be called the “evenly spreading the light” 光明遍照 of the Vairocana Buddha. There is a reason why they emanate light. That's because they are perfect. “The One” itself is complete and emits light, and the Vairocana Buddha is a Buddha of “well-equipped condition” 圓滿具足. However, they are also different. It is divided into two parts. First, the perspective of steps and differences. “The One” goes down in steps, but the Vairocana Buddha shines light all over the world without any differences or steps. Second, viewpoint of epiphany. “The One” emanates and moves down to the next level, but Vairocana Buddha appears according to the nature and hetu-pratyaya 因緣 of people. The subject of this paper is contemplation[theoria]. Human can experience meeting the God through contemplation. Deification[theosis] are made by human practicing purification, and at this time, they need Icon as a tool of contemplation. Icon is a painting depicting the contents and teachings of the Bible in the style of painting. An icon can be seen as two functions. First, it's the function of edification. Icon is used to easily communicate passages and teachings in scripted scriptures to the public. Second, it’s a function of deification. Human have an experience of being God by looking at the Icon. The Icon is a tool for contemplation, which makes deification. Contemplation has something in common as a practical way of performing religion in the East and West. Neoplatonism provides a theoretical basis for “return” through the contemplation of the Eastern Orthodoxy. Icon is the image of Jesus and other saints. The performer contemplates a picture and reaches its original form. In Esoteric Buddhism, the performer acquires a world of truth by observing the moon, letters, and maṇḍala. They contain the world and truth. Since Neoplatonism has also influence on the theology system and religious practice of Christianity, the contemplation of Esoteric Buddhism can be linked with the contemplation of Neoplatonism. A figure, or form, is a tool used as a contemplation. The practice of Esoteric Buddhism relies basically on sammil 三密. which is a method of yoga 瑜伽, and the sammil of Buddha and the sammil of performer make a match to form buddha. Sammil is the secrets of body 身, word 口, and mind 意. Practice and realization of Esoteric Buddhism is carried out through these three. Some of the most representative methods of practice of esoteric buddhism are azagwan 阿字觀 and ohzaeomshingwan 五字嚴身觀 of “Mahavairocana Sutra” 『大日經』 and wallyungwan 月輪觀 and ohsangseongshingwan 五相成身觀 of “Vajrasekhara Sutra” 『金剛頂經』. Return in neoplatonism is achieved by theoria. This case can be explained as a process of deification of Eastern Orthodoxy. Eastern Orthodoxy explains that is deification by performing contemplation, and there are three processes. They are the “Catarsis – Theoria – Theosis.” Their meanings correspond to “purification – contemplation – fruit” respectively. This process contemplates Icons through purification and then reaches deification. The Return is possible through the religious practices of the Eastern Orthodoxy. According to Neoplatonism, “Psyche” can reach “The One” through theoria. In Eastern Orthodoxy, people become one with the original God through an image of God, and in Esoteric Buddhism, performers get enlightenment by visualizing the truth in the soyeonsang 所緣相. Return can also be found in the enlightenment of Esoteric Buddhism. In the 7th century, completion of sutras in Esoteric Buddhism have a system of doctrine and performance. Although Esoteric Buddhism is Buddhism, it introduces homa 護摩, abhiseka 灌頂, and dharani 陀羅尼, which are Hindu rituals. Applying these rites to Buddhism, they form their own customs. Return to “The One” is deification in theology of Eastern Orthodoxy and jeukshinseongbul 卽身成佛 in Esoteric Buddhism. Vairocana buddha is the Buddha of Hwaeom and Esoteric Buddhism in itself, which is the truth, law, and natural phenomena of the universe. The Performer purifies through śīla 戒 and approaches samathi 三昧 and enlightenment 慧. These two have the same structure as catharsis. All of these include penitence and purification. Śīla of Esoteric Buddhism can be explained by sammaya śīla 三昧耶戒 shown in the sutras. There is also a process of repentance and purification in text explaining sammaya śīla. People are the Buddha in itself. People are blinded by stupidity and cannot find a clean mind. The return is to return to its original form. The return of Buddhism is to find one’s clean nature. So, who is the main body that becomes Buddha? It’s dharma-dhatu 佛性 or tathagatha-garbha 如來藏. The subject of return in neoplatonism is “Psyche.” In theology, it can be said to be Logos spermatichos (the seeds of Logos), or soul. Justin said that everyone has the seeds of Logos. It allows people to approach the God. Performer is the subject of practicing contemplation in both Esoteric Buddhism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Nature and Psyche show similarities between Buddhism and Christianity. In other words, nature becomes Dharmakāya 法身 and Psyche can reach the God. However, there is a clear difference between them. The soul can be explained by its substance, but “I” is anatta 無我 with no fixed substance, consisting of Panca-skandha 五蘊. Performer wants to return. In Christianity, a person with a soul, or a seed of Logos, can approach God, and in Esoteric Buddhism, a performer with a clean nature becomes Vairocana Buddha.
본고는 마조도일의‘평상심’과 백운경한의‘무심’과 비교연구이다. 두 선사의 대표적인 명제는 평상심과 무심이다. 보리달마에 의해 중국에 전해진 불교는 당시 시대적 배경과 환경에 의해 그 세력이 미약했다. 그러나 중국불교 특히 선종이 일반 대중에게까지 널리 호응을 받을 수 있게 된 것은 마조도일이라는 당대 큰 선지식이 있었기에 가능했다. 선종에서는 마음의 중요성을 강조하는데 즉, 마음이 곧 부처임을 주장한다. 마조도일도 이 마음을 강조했다.‘심즉시불(心卽是佛),‘평상심시도(平常心是道)’를 주장했다. 마조도일에 의하면 인간이 가진 마음은 본래부터 부처의 마음이고, 평상심이 곧 도라는 것이다. 백운경한은 고려 말 승려로 태고보우, 나옹혜근과 함께 선종을 대표하는 선승이다. 백운경한은 전국 사찰을 돌며 40여년을 수행하다가 구법을 위하여 원나라로 가 당시 하무산 천호암에 주석하고 있던 임제선의 법제자인 석옥청공을 만나‘무심무념(無心無念)’의 묘한 도리를 깨닫는다. 그리고 임제종의 법을 전수받고 돌아와 무심을 대중들에게 설하였다. 백운경한은 태고보우와 함께 임제선의 계승자임에도 불구하고 당시 주류를 이뤘던 화두중심의 수행(간화선)을 주장하지 않았다. 그는 무심무념을 주장했는데 그 이유는 간화선(화두)이 오히려 깨달음에 또 다른 장애가 될 수 있다고 생각했다. 그래서 그는 간화선보다는 무심무념을 강조했다. 이 무심무념이야 깨달음에 이르는 가장 적합한 수행이라 생각했다. 따라서 본고에서는 마조도일의 평상심과 백운경한의 무심의 개념적 의미를 살펴보고 이어서 평상심과 무심에 이르기 위한 방법에 비교 연구하고자 한다.
본 논문은 나옹 선사의 생애와 사상에 대하여 염불선을 중점적으로 살펴보았으며 이에 대한 현대적 수용방안을 모색해 보았다. 이를 위해 이철헌, 김창숙, 염중섭, 보광 등의 선행연구들과 가송, 승원가, 어록 등의 문헌 자료를 중심으로 연구를 했다. 제2장에서는 시대적 상황과 나옹의 행장을 살펴보았는데 고려말의 정치적 상황에서 공민왕은 왕권 강화와, 반원자주 정책, 승과 제도를 개혁하였고 경제적 상황은 불교의 부패를 막기 위해 숭유억불과 과전법을 시행했다. 불교를 비판하는 주자학과, 간화선 임제선이 주를 이루었다. 불교의 수행 부분에서는 광종시대에 중국과의 교류가 아주 활발했으며 특히 천태종과 법안종의 교류로 인하여 불교가 아주 성행했음을 알 수 있다. 이러한 영향이 나옹에게 많은 영향을 주었다. 나옹의 행장부분은 행적에 대한 사료의 제시보다 그의 수행을 집중적으로 살펴보았다. 요연 선사에게 출가한 나옹은 지공의 무심선(無心禪)과 계율선(戒律禪)을 배웠고, 평산처림에게 임제선풍의 선법을 인가받았다. 제3장의 나옹의 선사상에서 이론적인 부분은 불성사상, 무심사상, 진공사상, 돈오사상, 선정겸수 등을 살펴보았으며, 실천사상으로는 조사선(祖師禪)의 평상심시도(平常心是道), 임제선의 무위진인(無位眞人) 그리고 ‘무(無)자’ 화두(話頭)와 ‘이 무엇고’ 등 화두참구를 제시했다. 그리고 공부십절목을 통해 공부상태를 점검하였다. 본 연구의 본론에 해당하는 염불선(念佛禪)에서 나옹은 염불과 관련 칭명(稱名), 관념(觀念), 염불선(念佛禪)을 제시하였는데 특히 자성미타와 유심정토를 강조하면서 일상생활에서 자신의 참 성품(性品)을 깨달으라고 강조하였다. 제4장에서는 나옹의 염불을 통한 현대적 수용으로 먼저 국내에는 휴정, 백암성총, 용성, 청화 등으로 면밀하게 이어진 나옹의 염불선을 살펴보았으며 이러한 실상염불은 나옹의 염불선의 연장선에 있다고 볼 수 있다. 끝으로 시대에 맞는 염불수행과 서구의 심리학과 의학 등을 염불에 적용하여 병고액난(病苦厄難)으로부터 벗어날 수 있는 방편을 제안하였다.
조선후기의 불교는 看話禪의 수행과 華嚴 敎學의 공존 양상을 띠며, 禪敎兼修 방향으로 전개되었다. 이와 같은 불교계의 분위기 속에서 蓮潭有一은 조선후기 대표적 禪師이자 講師였다. 禪修行을 근본으로 하는 禪宗 승려이면서도 講學과 私記 편찬을 활발히 하였던 인물이다. 본 연구는 18세기 불교계에서 중요한 위상을 차지한 연담유일의 활동을 禪敎觀, 念佛觀, 유가자와의 교류, 默庵과의 心性 논쟁 등에 대한 종합적 연구를 시도하였다. 먼저 연담의 禪觀에 대해 살펴보았는데, 그는 언제나 수행자의 자세를 유지하려고 하였고, 만년에 더욱 禪修行에 힘썼던 것을 알 수 있었다. 敎觀은 연담의 華嚴 私記를 중심으로 살펴보았다. 연담은 화엄 사기를 저술할 때, 첫째 잘못된 곳은 고치고 간략한 부분은 자세하게 밝혀 보충하였다. 둘째 방대한 華嚴經疏鈔의 내용을 논리적이고 체계적인 방식으로 재구성하였다. 셋째, 개념이나 내용이 어려운 것은 쉽게 풀고, 사기를 통해 자신의 학문적 관점을 드러내었다. 넷째 연담의 華嚴法界觀은 淸凉澄觀의 사상을 계승하여 법계를 이해한 것으로 보이며, 법계를 이해하는 기본 개념인 理와 事의 관계를 강조하였다. 특히 理事無碍를 圓敎의 입장에서 파악하고 중시한 것으로 보인다. 이러한 연담의 禪敎觀은 그의 私記에서도 찾아볼 수 있었다. 法集別行錄節要科目幷入私記에서 연담은 頓悟漸修를 현실적인 깨달음에 의거해서 판단하였고, 看話禪의 핵심은 參意가 아닌 參句임을 강조하였다. 한편 본 연구에서는 연담이 주장한 心性論을 華嚴의 性起사상, 禪宗의 本來成佛思想, 如來藏사상에 근거하여 분석하였다. 첫째, 연담의 주장은 衆生의 즉각적인 부처로의 전환, 즉 性起의 입장이었다고 할 수 있다. 둘째, 연담이 주장한 心性論은 菩提達摩 이후 馬祖道一 등에 이르기까지 禪宗의 祖師들에게 면밀하게 흐르는 사상이었고, 이것은 연담유일에게도 그대로 전승되었으며, 이를 토대로 자신의 心性論의 체계를 확립한 것으로 보인다. 셋째, 인간은 본래부터 물들고 오염된 존재가 아니라, 부처의 성품을 완전히 갖추고 있는 존재라고 파악하였다. 그리고 연담 당시의 불교계는 선, 교, 염불을 중시하는 三門修行이 유행하였으며, 연담 역시 염불수행을 선수행과 동일시하면서 중시하였음을 알 수 있었다. 그리고 연담은 유심정토와 서방정토 모두 용인하였지만, 마음으로 생각하는 염불은 正因이고, 입으로 명호를 송하는 염불은 助緣으로 보았다. 즉 칭명염불을 위주로 하는 서방정토는 방편적인 차원으로 용인하였다. 또한 연담은 많은 유가자들과 시와 편지 등을 주고받으며 유가자들과 교류하였다. 이러한 교류 속에서 연담은 유가자들에게 불교를 이해시키고 佛法을 옹호하고자 하였다. 연담의 이러한 사상과 활동은 조선후기 禪敎에 대한 이해를 심화할 수 있었고, 大芚寺의 12 宗師, 12講師 체계의 명맥을 계승시키는데 중요한 역할을 하였다. 또한 19세기에 일어난 禪門論爭에도 영향을 주었다. 따라서 연담의 사상은 조선후기 불교계 학문의 발전을 이끌었고, 불교계의 위상을 확립시켰다고 할 수 있다.