草衣禪師 硏究

진승환 동국대학교 2019 국내석사

영문초록 草衣禪師 硏究 동국대학교 일반대학원 선학과 진승환(知性) 草衣 意恂(1786-1866)은 조선후기의 대표적 禪師로, 적극적인 대외 활동을 기반으로 선의 활용 분야를 적극 개척하였다. 그러한 초의의 활동은 詩書畵茶의 다방면의 문화 예술 분야에서 禪文化의 창출이라는 평가를 받고 있다. 초의는 많은 유학자들과의 교유를 통해서 外學과 外緣을 넓혔다. 다산으로부터 시문과 주역을 배우고, 추사를 비롯한 실학자들로부터 실리적이고 실증적인 학문태도를 비롯해 실생활을 중시하는 것까지도 영향을 받았다고 할 것이다. 그러한 행적으로 일부 선행연구에서는 초의가 유학자들의 영향으로 그의 사상 및 문화를 형성시켰다는 평가가 있어왔다. 그러나 연구자가 초의의 생애와 시대배경을 비롯해 禪觀 및 修行觀, 그리고 그의 문화적 업적에 이르기까지 종합적인 검토로 살펴본 결과, 초의의 사상은 철저히 선의 본질에 입각해 있었으며 선사로의 삶에도 조금의 흐트러짐이 없었다. 그가 선보인 詩와 茶, 그리고 書와 畵 등의 문화 역시 선의 본질에 이르고자 하며, 그 세계를 그대로 담고자 했다. 즉 禪者로서 표현한 禪詩이자 禪茶, 禪書, 禪畵였다고 할 것이다. 또한 나아가 유학자들을 깨달음의 선세계로 이끌고자 하는 초의의 마음 또한 나타나고 있어 入廛垂手의 행적으로 보아도 무방하리라고 본다. 초의는 자신의 悟道의 法悅, 깨달음의 현상 등을 나타내는데 시를 빌어 표현하였고 여타의 문화 요소를 적극 활용하였던 것이다. 이는 달리 보자면, 조선후기 다소 완화된 측면이 있었다고는 하나, 오랜 기간 동안 진행된 억불정책으로 위축된 불교계의 시대적, 사회적 분위기 속에서, 선사 초의가 자신의 목소리를 낼 수 있는 유연하지만 효과적인 수단이 되었을 것이다. 초의가 강조한 禪敎兼修의 사상을 비롯해, 理事不二, 理事卽眞의 세계관, 不二의 禪門을 통해 一心의 근원세계에 이른다는 다양한 수행의 가능성을 제시한 것 등을 볼 때, 초의는 그 어느 선사들보다도 선의 본질에 철저했으며, 나아가 삶 속의 모든 일들을 수행으로 연결시키고자 했음을 엿볼 수 있다. 그러한 노력으로 조선후기 침체된 불교계를 禪理논쟁의 장으로 활성화시켰는가 하면, 시, 서, 화, 차의 다양한 문화적 접근으로 유학자들을 불법의 세계로 이끌었다. 이는 세간과 출세간의 삶을 달리보지 않는 불이의 선관을 토대로 한 초의의 깨달음의 산물이었으며, 祖師禪者로 때로는 유연하게 때로는 직설적으로 선의 세계를 자유자재하게 펼친 것과 다름이 없었다고 보는 바이다. ABSTRACT An Investigation of Seon Master Choui Jin Seunghwan (Jiseong) Seon Studies Department, the Graduate School at Dongguk University Choui Uisun (1786-1866), a representative Seon master of the late Joseon dynasty, actively pioneered in developing the practical use of Seon, standing on the basis of his positive outside activities. Due to his activities related to Seon, he is considered as the inventor of Seon culture in arts and culture, especially in the fields of poetry, calligraphy, paintings, and tea. Choui extended his non-Buddhist studies and human relationship through the exchange with many Confucian scholars. He learned poetry and prose, and the Yijing from Confucian Dasan Jeong Yakyong. Also Confucian scholars like Chusa Kim Jeonghui who studied practical matters in the Joseon dynasty inspired Choui not only through his pragmatic and positive attitudes of learning but also through his practical viewpoint of life. Due to this, some previous researches have shown that Choui shaped his thought and culture under the influence of Confucian scholars. However, when I performed a comprehensive study of Choui ranging from his life and historical background, to his views of Seon and Buddhist practice, and his cultural achievements, I came to a conclusion that Choui was thoroughly based on the essence of Seon from the standpoint of his thoughts, while living a life of no disturbance at all in his capacity as a Seon master. By unfolding the culture of poetry, tea, calligraphy, and paintings, Choui also sought to reach the essence of Seon with the intention of embracing the world of Seon. It can be said that his Seon culture manifested itself as Seon poetry, Seon tea, Seon calligraphy, and Seon painting in his capacity as a Seon adept. Furthermore, his Seon culture showed his intention of leading Confucian scholars to the world of Seon enlightenment; thus, it can be regarded as the act of stretching his hand of compassion to all sentient beings. Choui utilized poetry in expressing his joy in the dharma upon awakening to the truth and in revealing phenomenon of enlightenment, while actively employing other cultural elements. From another perspective, his Buddhist culture was possibly a flexible but effective means of making his voice heard in the historical and social circumstances of Joseon when Buddhism was withered by a long-lasting anti-Buddhist policy, even though such a policy was somewhat alleviated towards the latter part of the dynasty. Choui proposed various possible practices which was said to lead practitioners to the fundamental world of the one mind, through the ideas such as: the simultaneous cultivation of Seon and Kyo (teaching of the scriptures); the non-duality of principle and phenomena; the world view of the truth of principle and phenomena; and the non-dual approach of Seon. Taking this into account, Choui was more thorough in maintaining the essence of Seon than any other Seon masters, while wanting to link everything in life to Seon practice. Due to such efforts he made, Choui stimulated the stagnant Buddhist circle of the late Joseon dynasty by presenting an argument on the Seon principle while leading Confucian scholars to the Buddha’s teachings through various cultural approaches of poetry, calligraphy, paintings, and tea. This was produced from Choui’s enlightenment attained on the basis of the non-dual approach of Seon in which there is no difference between the mundane and supramundane life, It was also none other than a world of Seon which Choui, in his capacity as a master of patriarch Seon, unrestrictedly manifested sometimes flexibly or sometimes straightforwardly.

『서장』과 『간화결의론』 비교연구 : 간화선의 사상과 수행법을 중심으로

권민정(禪寂) 동국대학교 2013 국내석사

자성청정심의 공능과 현현에 대한 연구 : 육조단경을 중심으로

김연주 동국대학교 2019 국내석사

Huineng’s Chan is characterized by “sudden awakening” 頓悟 and “seeing the nature” 見性. “Seeing the nature” means properly seeing the pure character of self-nature, and “sudden awakening” consists in immediately achieving enlightenment. It is for this reason that Huineng’s enlightenment is called the sudden awakening and seeing the nature. Huineng said, "Human has an inherent quality whose self-nature is clean and pure." Human nature refers to the mind of ordinary persons. Even though ordinary persons use their good or evil mind when they encounter various circumstances, human nature is originally pure and clean. According to Huineng, enlightenment is no other than the spiritual state of restoring the originally pure nature of ordinary persons and such enlightenment is manifested in an ordinary routine of eating, wearing, talking, and walking around. And he said that the usual mind arising in our daily lives is the function of the “clean and pure mind of our self-nature” 自性淸淨心, and that if the mind revealed by this function is right in view of Buddhist practice, it is called the manifestation of the “clean and pure mind of self-nature.” In this way, Huineng expressed enlightenment in terms of the “clean and pure mind of self-nature.” Further, he proposed the two ways of expressing this “clean and pure mind of self-nature”: one way is the latent power 功能 and the other is the manifestation 顯現. In general, the latent power, which means potentiality to deal with something, typifies the capacity to do matters of one’s own accord. On the other hand, the manifestation, which means some effects being clearly unveiled, essentially develops in the form of Buddhist practice in everyday life. As for the latent power of the “clean and pure mind of self-nature,” it can be divided into the essential aspect and self-awareness aspect. The former refers to purity and emptiness, and the latter indicates the fact that one can attain enlightenment through the function of the originally endowed prajñā (wisdom). As for the manifestation of the “clean and pure mind of self-nature,” persons who have achieved enlightenment demonstrate mahāprajñāpāramitā (great perfection of wisdom) as it is in their daily lives while living a life of Buddhist practice. Here, the practice appears in the forms of the “absence of false thoughts” 無念行 and a “samādhi of perfect unity of body and mind in all activities” 一行三昧. Such practice is carried out on the basis of the “balanced maintenance of samādhi and prajnā” 定慧等持, and it is through the Bodhisattva practice that the “clean and pure mind of self-nature” is manifested in the daily life. As regards the practitioners of Huineng’s Chan in this way, Mazu called them those of “ordinary mind is the way”平常心是道, and Linji called them “those who are ordinary and have nothing to do” 平常無事人. While accepting Huineng’s ideas of the latent power and manifestation with regard to the “clean and pure mind of self-nature,” Mazu and Linji considered the practitioners of Huineng’s ideas as maintaining the ordinary mind in their daily lives. They are those who carry out compassion and meritorious deeds unwaveringly whatever circumstances they may be in.

선의 생명관과 실천윤리 연구

이양희 동국대학교 2019 국내박사

A Study on Life View of Seon and its Practical Ethics The purpose of this dissertation is to look into a life view of Seon(禪) and its practical ethics, focusing on the respect for life and compassion practice. The marrow of Buddhist life view is the very point of independent origination; all beings are not independent but interdependent and inter-penetrated in the 'web of life', which points "oneself and others not two(自他不二)." The recognition of "oneself and others not two" means the extension toward the Self: from oneself to others or from man to nature. The importance of the extension of self aims at the respect and consideration for other beings. It can become possible and realized concretely only through understanding and compassion for other beings So far, it is a dominant matter of ethics how man should do toward other beings, but now how to do toward nature or other beings is beginning to make its appearance. Therefore, it seems that Buddhist or Seon bioethics, based on respect and care for life, can be an alternative to overcome the crisis of ecosystem. That is, no-killing and the practice of compassion might be an alternative to overcome today's ecological destruction and crisis The fundamental cause of today's ecological crisis seems to be caused by man's wrong perception of life. Actually, the most fundamental principle of Buddhism is the very interacting and holistic world-view. Notwithstanding the importance of Buddhist ecology, it seems to me that it doesn't attract social consciousness. Above all, ecological recognition cherishes both all life's dignity and equality and an endless compassion and pity. And also, the interdependence and inter-respect is the very core of Buddhist ecological thought, so the respect for life and 'saving' life are the pillars of bioethics today. In doing so, a new direction to Buddhist bioethics in the 21st century can be groped, I think. For the sake of groping the alternative, this study will be developed in the following orders. In chapter 1, I presented both the purpose and scope of this study and previous studies. In chapter 2, I looked into the concept of life, aspect of life, and life's unique value and characteristic of Buddhist bioethics. In Buddhism, all beings are considered to be interrelated and interacting each other. This is the very interdependent origination. In this vein, life includes both all beings and even non-living beings. Hence, the practice of no-killing and compassion will be stressed. In Chapter 3, I tried to examine the bioethics in the perspective of Seon, focusing on the dignity of life, equal weight of life, Buddha nature, non-discriminated compassion for all living beings. Seon thought on the uniqueness and equality of all living things seems to provide the ground of thought to support the honorableness of life. That's why Seon aims at overcoming dichotomy thought and discrimination and also aims at realizing the value of middle-path. In chapter 4, I investigated the aspects and features of bioethics in view of Seon in more detail: no-killing in the Scriptures, bioethics in Seonwoncheonggyu(禪院淸規), bioethics in Seon analects and Buddhist Tales, etc.. In the past, Seon masters lived on rough foods and took food only as a medicine to maintain body or to attain enlightenment, suppressing their appetite. In addition, they filtered even a drop of water before drinking because they think that a myriad of creatures live in it. Here is a precious teaching not to do harm them because they also have Buddha nature. It means that the respect for life, based on compassion, extends to all living things. In chapter 5, I attempted to examine the importance of re-recognition and practice of Buddhist bioethics from the standpoint of Seon: the recognition of all life's dignity and equality, the intrinsic value of Seon and interrelation of life, practical ethics of compassion and 'saving' life, animal's bioethics in Seon analects. Buddha nature which emphasizes the unique value of all beings includes the inter-respect and care for not only all living beings but also even non-living beings. Here is the necessity of Buddhist ethical practice for all sentient beings based on compassion and pity. In brief, the core of Buddhist bioethics is to fully recognize the dignity and equality of life and also to aim at co-existent life. Finally, in chapter 6, I mentioned that both a strategic thought and a proper reinterpretation of Buddhist scriptures satisfying to the ethical situation of 21C should be made, and the co-existent alternatives to unify the diverse inter-disciplinary studies such as Buddhism and science, Buddhism and Biotechnology, and Buddhism and ethics, etc.. should be groped as well.

선가귀감의 간화선 연구

손선화 동국대학교 2019 국내석사

Cheongheo Hyujeong’s Seonga gwigam (A Guide to Seon) is one of the most important Buddhist books of the Joseon dynasty. The writer's motive consists in the realization of his earnest aspiration to overcome the limitations of Joseon Buddhism and in nurturing the next generation. The Seonga gwigam is a gem of a Seon text whose contents and ideas are profound and lofty, standing out for its excellent symbolism. The text demonstrates the importance of the one mind 一心 by means of a single thing 一物 while emphasizing the fact that sentient beings are constantly in their originally enlightened state. In addition, Seonga gwigam can be an introductory text to Seon studies since it is organized as a guidebook teaching students about the importance of Seon, the importance of Kyo (teaching of the scriptures), the necessity of verbal chanting of the name of the Buddha, and the history of Seon. In the Joseon Buddhist world, where there were no guidelines whatsoever to follow, the Seonga gwigam was an exceedingly rare and unique book. According to Seonga gwigam, Hyujeong’s major doctrinal theories are as follows. He recognized the two aspects of existence: the immutable, fundamental state and the conditioned, phenomenal world. About the soteriological model, he mentions sudden awakening and gradual cultivation. In Seon, it is said that the time of a thought is endowed with everything in the universe. Therefore, students should strive to directly understand the fundamental world and carry such an understanding into practice on the basis of Kyo studies. As for Hyujeong, the Buddhist practice is divided into Seon and other practice methods. But the core of the Buddhist practice, according to him, is Seon, especially Ganhwaseon which investigates hwadu, and thus, he expounds several points as a preparation for the practice of Seon. Hyujeong’s Ganhwaseon turns on the mu-hwadu investigation which requires students to meditate on the living phrase 活句. The essence of Hyujeong’s thought is the ideological understanding and practice of Buddhism through a more fundamental Seon. Hyujeong’s theory of the Buddhist practice as derived from the Seonga gwigam can be summarized as relinquishing Kyo and entering into Seon 捨敎入禪. This means that students should enter the Buddhist practice by adopting Kyo as their guides, but that they should not be bound by discursive knowledge as well. And yet, Hyujeong emphasized the importance of other practice methods and students’ attitude toward practice in daily life. The ultimate goals of Hyujeong’s thought and practice system were to cut off the afflictions of life and death while inheriting the Buddha’s wisdom-life, and to liberate from the three realms of saṃsāra while saving the sentient beings. Renouncing the secular life is not for seeking convenience and comfort, nor for warmth and good meals, nor for honor and benefit. This definitely clarifies what is the most essential attitude for practitioners to retain. It is also the starting point and destination of Hyujeong’s thought. The core of Hyujeong’s teaching is to look into oneself; make efforts to liberate from the three realms of saṃsāra; then, to save the sentient beings. This is also the ultimate goal of Seon Buddhism, as well as the original share and the view of practice that we practitioners ought to establish. 󰡔선가귀감󰡕은 한국불교의 주류를 이어온 선사상과 간화선 수행법, 그리고 여타의 수행법들을 요약한 중요한 수행 입문서이다. 불법의 확립과 수행지침서가 절박하게 필요하다는 인식으로 편찬된 󰡔선가귀감󰡕에는 깨달음을 얻기 위해 실천해야할 수행법이 구체적으로 제시되어 있다. 본 연구에서는 󰡔선가귀감󰡕에서 드러나는 선사상의 요체 및 실천구조, 간화선 수행법 및 화두점검과 인가 그리고 󰡔선가귀감󰡕의 수행관이 후대에 미친 영향을 중심으로 집중 고찰하였다. 󰡔선가귀감󰡕의 사상적 특징은 크게 ‘선교융합’과 ‘선주교종’을 들 수 있다. 먼저 선교융합과 관련하여 󰡔선가귀감󰡕에서는 교문과 선문을 시설해 놓은 이유로 중생의 근기가 다르기 때문이라 밝히고 있다. 두 번째 사상적 특징은 선주교종이다. 휴정은 본질적으로 선주교종, 사교입선의 관점을 고수하고 있다. 선과 교를 대립적으로 규정하지 않고 아우르고 회통하려는 노력 때문이다. 그러나 선과 교의 중요성을 동시에 인정하면서도 궁극에는 이론에의 천착을 버리고 진실 된 핵심근원에 직입하는 사교입선, 즉 선주교종의 일관된 관점을 보이고 있다. 󰡔선가귀감󰡕에 나타나는 간화선의 요체는 ‘一物, 活句참구, 看話三要’로 요약할 수 있다. 또한 휴정은 화두참구 시에 활구를 참구할 것을 강조하였다. 수행자들이 가야할 궁극의 귀결처는 선문이며, 이로 직입하기 위해서는 사구가 아닌 활구를 깨우쳐야 한다는 것이다. 그 바탕은 大信根·大憤志·大疑情의 간화삼요로서 삼요에 바탕한 활구로 대의정을 발할 것을 강조하였다. 휴정의 화두점검은 일상점검과 수시점검으로서 특별히 16가지의 일상점검법을 제시하여, 수행자가 일상에서도 스스로 자신을 점검하며 경책하도록 하였다. 화두점검과 인가를 위해서는 반드시 선지식이 필요함을 들었다. 휴정은 당시 불교계의 중흥조로서의 역할을 크게 담당하였다. 선조 대에 불교는 제도적으로 인정되지는 않았지만 휴정이 불교계 내에서 확고한 세력을 다지면서 불교의 위상도 함께 높아졌다. 휴정은 선과 교의 갈등을 무마하면서 승려의 자질향상과 徒弟 양성 및 승풍 진작을 위해 제자들과 함께 다수의 저술을 간행하였다. 특히 휴정의 제자인 사명, 편양계와 부휴계가 대외적 활동과 내적인 체제 정비를 주도하였다. 이들은 태고법통설의 정립, 선교겸수 및 간화선풍의 고양과 삼문수행의 정착, 이력 과정 및 불교 의례 등을 정비하였다. 이를 통해 불교계의 성장과 함께 임제선종의 정통성이 표방되고 수행 및 수학체계가 정립되었다. 동시에 선 일변도의 수행방식을 지양하며 교학과 염불을 포괄함에 따라 조선 중·후기 불교는 선종을 표방하였음에도 다양한 색채를 지닐 수 있었다. 이 때 만들어진 불교 체제는 이후로 큰 변동 없이 지속되었다. 휴정의 사상 및 수행체계의 궁극은 오직 생사번뇌를 끊어 부처님의 혜명을 계승하고, 삼계에서 벗어나 중생을 제도하기 위한 것에 있다. 출가는 편안하고 안락하기 위해, 혹은 따뜻하고 배부름을 위해, 혹은 명예나 이익을 위한 것이 아니다. 이는 수행자가 가져야 할 가장 핵심적인 마음가짐이 어떠한 것이어야 하는지 분명히 밝히고 있는 것으로서 휴정의 사상적 출발점이자 도착지이기도 하다. 삼계에서 벗어나 중생들을 제도하기 위해 자신을 살피고 정진해야 한다는 휴정 가르침의 핵심은 바로 선불교의 궁극적 목적이자, 우리 수행인이 반드시 확립해야 할 본분이며 수행관이라 할 것이다.

만해 한용운의 대승보살사상 연구

오철우 東國大學校 2019 국내박사

Manhae Han Yong-un (1879-1944) was a Buddhist monk, poet, writer, and one of the 33 representative fighters for national independence who actively participated in the March First Movement and signed the Declaration of Independence. As a symbol of innovation and reformation in the late period of the Joseon dynasty, Manhae threw himself into the lives of sentient beings without averting his eyes from the immediate sufferings of the times, especially from the matters of modern Korea’s barren social aspects and from the then Buddhist community. He was a Buddhist monk of the times who wholeheartedly embodied the path of unity between monks and laymen. Manhae did not aspire to his own honors in the least, but sacrificed himself to save the people who had been miserably suffering after having lost their country to colonizers. He also devoted himself to saving the Buddhist community which had been completely deprived of its independence under the Japanese rule when Buddhism had not yet been freed from tribulations caused by Joseon’s policy of promoting Confucianism and oppressing Buddhism. It would be difficult to discuss the modern Korean history without mentioning Manhae because he showed various unique edification of the people as a writer, social activist, nationalist, and fighter for independence under the Japanese colonial rule. To understand Korean Buddhism around the 20th century, it is required to look squarely on the history of modern Korea. The period when Manhae lived extends from the late Joseon to the Japanese imperial rule; in those days, the Korean society was in utter confusion with outbursts of Imo Military Revolt (1882), Donghak Peasant Uprising (1894), and Reform of the Cyclical Year Gabo (1894). Facing the reality of his country in such disorder, it was Manhae Han Yong-un who looked straightly on the world situation with an astonishing insight into modern times. After penetrating into Japan’s modernization and civilization, into the systematic reorganization of its Buddhist community, and into the conditions of its Buddhist propagation, he desired to establish a modernized religion by means of the Buddhist reformation; to rescue the masses suffering under the oppression of the colonizers; and further to achieve national independence. Accordingly, he did his utmost to accomplish all these enterprises. Manhae’s thought and work are significant not merely in that they were set as a reaction against the gloomy phases of colonial times but also in that they created a direction toward which the contemporary Korean Buddhist community and nation should proceed by gaining an insight into the modernity of the ever changing politics, society, and religion across the globe. All the achievements Manhae made were directly connected with his Buddhist enlightenment. Like a great torch to light the way of the then dismal Buddhist community and society, Manhae’s thoroughly realistic view of religion and his practice were embodied in his thought on the Mahāyāna bodhisattva. His literary works, another of his brilliant achievements, also comprehensively reveal Buddhist thoughts of prajñā, emptiness, and the Huayan school. Therefore it would be hard to correctly interpret Manhae’s life and literary works if one overlooked his Mahāyāna thought. Until now, investigations of Manhae have been made diversely, but in fact they generally have focused around the literary area or around the history of the national independent movement. In other words, it can be said that illumination and researches of the Buddhist thought on Manhae the Buddhist monk have made regrettably little progress considering his reputation. It is doubtful indeed if we could rightly explain the great contributions of Manhae as a Buddhit monk without paying a close attention to his Buddhist philosophy and Seon (Chan; Zen) thought, as well as his training and spiritual enlightenment. For Manhae’s social achievements were all materialized exactly on the basis of his firm belief in Buddhism. As it were, Manhae’s exceptional and innovative reformation ideology, and his life-endangering activities for the sake of national liberation, were thoroughly grounded on the thought of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva. Consequently, it will not be until Manhae’s bodhisattva thought is properly understood that Manhae’s great social movement, Buddhist reform movement, and literary value also make their significance even clearer than before. Based on this idea, this dissertation makes an intensive investigation as to Manhae’s thought on the Mahāyāna bodhisattva among others. More specifically, the author has examined the formative background of Manhae’s thought on the Mahāyāna bodhisattva; his Seon thought and view of practice; the interrelationship between Manhae’s Buddhist philosophy and Mahāyāna scriptures; and the social activities and status of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva thought. This investigation has made it possible to determine more clearly how the view of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva had a direct correlation with Manhae’s social activities and Buddhist reform movement. Because this investigation is unique in this regard, the author expects it will be a specialized research on Han Yong-un’s Buddhist thought. In terms of his achievements, Manhae can be defined in three aspects: first, as a poet who accomplished a great feat; second, as a great patriot who fought for national independence; third, as a great Buddhist monk who supported the legitimacy and dignity of Korean Buddhism through reformation and renovation and who advocated modern minjung Bulgyo (Buddhism for the masses). But the entirety of Manhae’s activities and thought was underpinned by his Buddhist practice and spiritual awakening as a monk. And at the center of his practice are the Mahāyāna thought and bodhisattva thought. The thought of Mahāyāna bodhisattva, namely, the display of infinite bodhisattva-mind to the sentient beings, was the substantial foundation of his lifelong social activities; of his reform ideas on the Buddhist orders; of his independence movement, and of his literary works. The author ascertained that as early as in his childhood before taking the tonsure, Manhae had the so-called righteous person thought which advocates both abolishing inequality and saving all people; and that his thought on the Mahāyāna bodhisattva was formed from the idea of the righteous person. This demonstrates that he was endowed with altruistic mind. After becoming a monk, as he was absorbed in Mahāyāna Buddhism, his thought of the righteous person came to be furnished with the bodhisattva thought and his acts of altruism were extended to the whole areas of society. Manhae had a preeminent eye for the changing times and world. He recognized the current and danger of civilizations of the modern world through visits to Russia and Japan after becoming a monk and was convinced that at this rate, Joseon, not to mention Joseon Buddhism, would be dismissed from modern society. In those days, there were not many whose awareness of modernity was as high a level as Manhae’s. Thus Manhae, despite being a monk, wanted to let the deluded and deceived sentient beings know what he observed and experienced; thereby, enlighten them. Furthermore, he did not limit Buddhism to its doctrines, but wanted to popularize Buddhism by focusing on such modernistic ideas as self-power Buddhism and humanistic Buddhism to meet the demands of the times. He highlighted the fact that since Buddhism is definitely distinguished from all other world religions, it is the most excellent, great, and humanistic religion required by modern man. The insight Manhae unfolded in emphasizing the self-power, universality, and idealist philosophy of Buddhism is still prominent and effective even from the perspective of contemporary man. It is in this respect that his insight has an immense significance. The ultimate purpose of Manhae’s philosophy is to dedicate the merit of his Mahāyāna bodhisattva-mind to saving the secular world; thus, his mind filled with great compassion for all anguished living beings came to be incarnated in the Buddhist spirit of salvation. To unfold this spirit, he promulgated the Buddhist idea of peace, and actively opposed to religious suppression and to the anti-religious policy of the Communists. Further he asked the Buddhist community and the Korean people to be thoroughly awakened to, and defended against, the then prevalent Communist policy of the elimination of religion. This obviously resulted from a keen eye of Manhae who had an accurate understanding of the world situation, and it is needless to say that the basis of such an idea was on pacificism that Manhae had advocated through the Mahāyāna bodhisattva thought. Manhae strived not only for social activities but also for the training and studies of Seon and Gyo (doctrinal teachings) as a Buddhist monk. Ordained as a monk at Oseam hermitage, a branch temple of Baekdamsa monastery on Mount Seorak in 1917, Manhae recommended a right Buddhist practice to the practitioners of the Buddhist path. He considered the maintenance of the unconditioned state without discriminating thought as the supreme Buddhist practice. According to him, one cannot reach the stage of enlightenment without removing the discriminating mind; accordingly, everything occurring in the stage of enlightenment cannot pass the bounds of non-discriminating mind. In addition, Manhae aimed at the supreme vehicle by means of which students could be greatly enlightened at the words; but, for the sake of those unequal to such a ‘sudden awakening/ sudden cultivation’ practice, he offered hwadu Seon as a skill means to give encouragement to them. In this manner, he accepted diverse practice methods and then helped practitioners reach enlightenment by recommending an appropriate method according to their respective mental faculties—sharp, dull, slow, or fast. To those of superior faculties, he emphasized the practice of sudden cultivation, i.e., an instantaneous great awakening by means of blows and shouts, or the question and answer, given from masters of patriarch Seon. To those of inferior faculties, he recommended the hwadu investigation as a skillful means for them to achieve enlightenment. Further, to those of very much inferior faculties, he preached the accumulation of good karma by practicing meritorious behavior. From Manhae’s attitude toward Buddhist practice, one can find out a full embodiment of his bodhisattva spirit in loving and saving the sentient beings. Like this, equipped with social activities, national independence movement, Seon training, and the spirit of the unity of Seon and Gyo, Manhae carried out the thought of Mahāyāna bodhisattva over the whole society, over the whole Buddhist orders, over the whole life, and that without discrimination. In the whirlwind of the most drastic changes at home and abroad after closing the five-hundred-year Joseon dynasty, as an advocate of human freedom and equality, as an opponent of imperialism and colonial rule, as a fighter for independence, and as a bold reformer of the Buddhist orders, Manhae fully demonstrated the Mahāyāna bodhisattva thought for the salvation of the then suffering sentient beings. The greatness of Manhae’s Mahāyāna bodhisattva thought consists in his making the truth of Buddhism a direct and practical solution applicable to the people of those days; to do this, he spread Buddhism all across society, ideology, and religion, but not merely kept it within bounds. Moreover, of much greater significance is that the sober and innovative arguments Manhae raised for the sake of society and the Buddhist circle are amply required and effective even for the present situation.

간화선이 수행자의 심리·생리적 변화에 미치는 영향

김혜원 동국대학교 2019 국내박사

본 연구는 안거에 들어가는 스님을 대상으로 간화선 수행의 효과를 혈중 호르몬과 심리검사의 변화를 통해 밝히고자 하였다. 연구대상은 하안거와 동안거 수행에 참여한 비구 스님 11명이었다. 기존 논문들은 인터뷰 자료나 보고용 척도와 관련된 논문으로 수행자의 방어가 쉽게 일어날 수 있다. 따라서 방어를 줄여 줄 수 있고, 보다 정확한 양질의 정보를 제공할 수 있는 혈중 호르몬과 투사적 심리검사를 통한 간화선의 효과를 과학적으로 제공하고자 한다. 특히 스님들의 수행으로 간화선의 효과를 극대화함으로서 간화선이 나아갈 길에 지표가 되고자 하였다. 연구결과 스트레스 호르몬인 에피네프린은 유의미한 경향성을 확인했고, 노르에피네프린은 하안거 집단은 감소하고 동안거 집단은 증가하였다. 행복 호르몬인 세로토닌은 차이가 없었고, 도파민은 하안거 집단은 차이가 없었고, 동안거 집단은 증가하여 유의미한 변화를 보였다. 동안거 집단의 간화선 수행 후 도파민 1400%의 증가는 기존 연구물의 65%를 훨씬 뛰어넘는 결과로, 비단 그것이 간화선을 추구하는 자가 궁극적인 깨달음을 얻는 것은 아니라고 하더라도, 간화선이 인간 행복에 지대한 영향을 주었다고 판단할 수는 있겠다. HTP, BGT, K-wais, Rorschach 등의 심리검사를 통해 나타난 결과는 간화선의 효과를 일관되게 해석할 수 있는 정보를 제공해 주었다. 특히 평균지능 13-14점의 증가로 간화선 수행에 주의력, 집중력, 지각능력의 향상 등의 효과를 보았을 것으로 해석된다. 연구의 의의는 안거에 들어가는 스님을 대상으로 연구가 이루어졌다는 점, 혈액을 채취하여 객관화된 수치를 보는 연구로 아직 시도된바 없는 국내 최초의 과학적인 작업을 거쳤다는 점, 임상에서 적용하는 심리검사 6가지를 활용했다는 점이다. 간화선 수행의 효과가 과학적 검증 및 심리적 해석에 가치 있는 정보를 제공해줌으로서 현대인들의 다양한 심리적 문제들을 해결하는 데 도움이 될 것으로 기대해 본다. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of Ganhwaseon performance on the blood and psychological tests of the monks who entered the retreat. The subjects of this study were 11 monks from S and M area. The effects of blood hormone changes and six psychological tests were examined. In the past, researchers have been able to easily defend themselves by using papers related to interview data or reporting scales. Therefore, we sought to scientifically provide the effect of Ganhwaseon through blood and projective psychological tests that can reduce defenses and provide more accurate information. Especially, by maximizing the effect of Ganhwaseon by the performance of monks, we wanted to be an indicator on the way of Ganhwaseon. The results showed that epinephrine, a stress hormone, had a significant tendency and a small amount of secretion, while norepinephrine showed a decrease in the summer retreat group and an increase in the winter retreat group. There was no difference in serotonin, the happy hormone, but Dopamine showed no significant difference in the summer retreat group and the winter retreat group showed significant increase. The increase in dopamine 1400% after the Ganhwaseon performance is far more than 65% of the existing research, and even if it is not the ultimate enlightenment that Ganhwaseon pursues, It can be judged that the Ganhwaseon has greatly influenced human happiness. The results of HTP, K-wais, Rorschach and BAI were significantly verified. Especially, the increase of average intelligence 13-14 points seems to have shown the effect of attention and concentration on Ganhwaseon performance. In addition, BGT has reduced performance errors, and BDI shows results belonging to normal category. The significance of the study was that the research was conducted on the monks who entered the retreat, the study of the objectivized figures by taking blood, the first scientific work in Korea that has not been attempted yet, I used six clinical psychological tests. I hope that the effects of Ganhwaseon will provide valuable information for scientific verification and psychological interpretation, which will help solve various psychological problems of modern people.

『勸修定慧結社文』에 나타난 『圓覺經』 연구

임성남 동국대학교 2019 국내석사

The main purpose of the Gwonsu jeonghye gyeolsamun(勸修定慧結社文) Encouragement to Practice: The Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community) is to encourage all sentient beings to practice together consistently the two doors of Samādhi (定 meditation) and Prajñā(慧 wisdom). Bojo Jinul(普照知訥 1158-1210) proposed as his expedient means of the 'dual practice of meditation and wisdom (定慧雙修)' in order to enlighten even the latter age sentient beings. Here, it is the Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment(圓覺經) that supports Jinul's claim that Buddha's enlightenment is possible even to the latter age sentient beings whose spiritual ability are quite low and dull. The importance of the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment is the greatest in terms of the ground for the practice of both Samādhi & Prajñā and the relationship between original mind(自心) & perfect enlightenment(圓覺) shown in the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community. However, there has been no published papers to analyze in depth the perfect enlightenment thought(圓覺思想) up to the present. Among the researches on the Jinul‘s thought published in Korea, especially the study on the relationship between the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment and the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community were only few cases in which the core ideas were deeply analyzed. In this regard, this paper focuses on the citation of the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, which refers to the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community. The direct data of the original text analysis are the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community in the Jinul's chapter of Hanguk Bulgyo Jeonseo (韓國佛教全書) Vol. 4 and the Taishō shinshū daizōkyō (大正新脩大藏經) Vol. 17 as source texts. Regarding the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment related data, I adopted the preface (序文 Xuwen) of Pei Xiu (裴休 797–870) as a source text which is included in the Yuanjue jing daochang xiu zhengyi (圓覺經道場修證儀 Manual of Procedures for the Cultivation of Realization of Ritual Practice According to the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment) and the Yuanjuejing lüeshu(圓覺經略疏 A commentary on the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment) by Zongmi(宗密). As contents of this paper, in chapter Ⅱ, I will investigate the historical background, the motivation, purpose, and significance of this writing through the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community. Further I explain how Jinul recognized his times and what is his alternative. In chapter Ⅲ, I review how the late Silla and early Goreo period accepted the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment as basis of text quotation for the study. Also I review roughly how the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment was used in the late Silla and early Goreo society. Next, by reviewing the preface (序文) of Pei Xiu (裴休) quoted in the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community and the Yuanjue jing daochang xiu zhengyi(圓覺經道場修證儀), I explain Jinul's intention of quoting these two text is to show the true mind that all sentient beings are originally endowed with. In chapter Ⅳ, I will investigate in detail the contents quoted directly and indirectly in each questions and answers of the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community from the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment. So I would like to explain the contention of this sutra's conviction that Buddha's enlightenment is possible even to the latter age sentient beings with the firm belief in original mind and practice. Also I explain that the suggested practice method of 'sudden enlightenment and gradual cultivation(頓悟漸修)' is confirmed by the scriptures. In the chapter Ⅴ, I explain the relationship between the two texts in terms of practice, thought, and cultivation & realization respectively. In the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community of Jinul, we can realize Jinul conclusion that he emphasized, on the basis of the original Buddhahood in the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, the absolute believing and understanding of teachings on original mind (自心). Finally Jinul conclude it through the practice of meditation and wisdom. Of course the original mind is from the perfect enlightenment potentially present in each being in the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment. Regarding the Buddhahood can be attained even to the latter age sentient beings, Jinul provided 'dual practice of meditation and wisdom(定慧雙修)' and 'sudden enlightenment and gradual cultivation(頓悟漸修)' as theoretical foundation through the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment. As the practical understanding of the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment thought has been applied in the present Korean Buddhism including Jinul's thought, the in-depth analysis and research is necessary in terms of the relationship between the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment and the Compact of the Samādhi and Prajñā Community in the future. 『권수정혜결사문(勸修定慧結社文)』의 근본 취지는 선정(定)과 반야(慧)라는 두 문을 지속적으로 일체 중생이 모두 함께 수행하자고 권유하는데 있다. 지눌은 말세중생까지도 정각을 증득할 수 있다는 측면에서 그 주요 방편으로서 ‘정혜쌍수(定慧雙修)’를 제시한다. 여기에서 말세중생(末世衆生)조차도 무루도(無漏道)의 수습(修習), 즉 붓다의 깨달음이 가능하다는 지눌의 주장을 뒷받침하고 있는 것이 『원각경(圓覺經)』이다. 선정과 반야 수습을 해야 하는 근거와 『결사문』에 나타난 自心과 圓覺의 관계를 고려할 때, 『圓覺經』이 지닌 중요성이 가장 크다고 생각된다. 하지만 현재까지 『결사문』에 나타난 원각사상을 심층적으로 분석하는 논문은 아직 발표되지 않으며 국내에 발표된 지눌의 연구 성과들 가운데, 특히 『원각경』과 『결사문』의 관계선상에서 그 핵심 사상을 심층적으로 분석한 사례는 거의 없었다. 이런 차원에서 본 논문은 『결사문』에서 經證으로 삼고 있는 『원각경』의 인용 내용에 초점을 맞추어 분석하고자 한다. 본 논문의 원전분석에 있어서 『결사문』에 인용된 『圓覺經』의 1차적인 자료로서 『한국불교전서』 제4책의 지눌 편에 수록되어 있는 『결사문』과, 『대정신수대장경(大正新脩大藏經)』17권에 수록되어 있는 『원각경』을 저본으로 할 것이다. 『결사문』에서 지눌의 인용문에 나와 있는 『원각경』 계통 자료는 『만신찬대일본속장경(卍新纂大日本續藏經)』에 수록된 『원각경도량수증의(圓覺經道場修證儀)』와 종밀의 『원각경약소(圓覺經略疏)』의 서문인 배휴의 <序文>를 저본으로 하여 고찰 할 것이다. 본고의 구성내용으로 Ⅱ장에서 『결사문』을 통해 시대적 배경과 글을 쓰게 된 동기와 목적, 의의를 알아보겠다. 그리고 지눌의 자심과 말세중생에 대한 관점, 염불에 대해 어떤 시각으로 시대를 인식하고 있으며 그 내용에 대해 서술하겠다. Ⅲ장에서는 본 논문에서 인용의 연구를 위한 기초로서 나말여초의 『원각경』수용과 유통현상과 『원각경』이 우리나라에서 어떤 측면으로 활용되고 있었는지에 대해 개략적으로 살펴보겠다. 다음 『결사문』에 인용되었던 배휴의 『원각경약소』 서문과 『원각도량수증의』의 내용을 고찰함으로서 지눌이 이 두 텍스트에 대한 인용 의도가 마음자리를 드러내는데 있었음을 밝힐 것이다. Ⅳ장에서는 『결사문』의 각 문답에서 직접 또는 간접 인용된 『원각경』의 내용을 고찰함으로서 두 텍스트 간의 상관관계에 대해 고찰해 볼 것이며, Ⅴ장에서 『결사문』과 『원각경』 두 텍스트 간의 관점과 사상의 연관성을 밝히는 것으로서 수행의 측면, 사상의 측면, 수증의 측면으로 나누어 살펴 볼 것이다. 이상의 내용을 종합해 본다면 『결사문』에서 지눌은 『원각경』의 本來成佛에 입각하여 ‘自心信解’를 강조하고, 그 신해가 선정과 반야를 수습할 수 있다는 결론을 도출하고 있다. 때문에 말세중생일지라도 성불이 가능하다고 하는 것이다. 물론 그 자심은『원각경』에서의 원각사상에 의거한 것이다. 『결사문』에서 지눌은 『원각경』에 등장하는 정법말세를 바탕으로 해서 말세에 대한 관점을 ‘본래성불’ 입장에 두고 말세중생도 깨달음을 성취할 수 있다는 경증으로 『원각경』을 채택하여 수행의 이론적 근거로 삼는다. 즉 수행방편으로서 정혜쌍수와 돈오점수로 제시한 것이다. 『원각경』의 사상과 실천의 이해는 지눌을 위시하여 한국불교에서도 중요한 위치에 놓여 활용되고 있다는 점으로 볼 때 『결사문』에 나타난 원각사상을 심층적으로 분석하는 연구, 특히 『원각경』과 『결사문』의 관계선상에서 그 핵심 사상을 심층적으로 분석하는 연구가 필요하다고 본다.

荷澤 神會의 無念觀 연구

이의진 東國大學校 2018 국내석사

Heze Shenhui (荷澤 神會, 684∼758) was considered to be the founder of the Heze school of Chinese Chan, being a primary representative of what is termed as Southern School of Chan. Shenhui's ‘Non-Thought (無念)’ refers to original mind which includes the Buddha nature (佛性), tathatā (眞如 suchness), and prajñā (般若 wisdom). His view on Seon (Chan) is based on ‘Non-Thought’, the principal doctrine of Southern School. Shenhui's ‘Non-Thought’ was borrowed from ‘no remembrance (Skt. amanasikāra)’ thought in the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra (維摩經). He emphasized ‘Non-Thought’ and considered that ‘no attention (不作意 Skt. amanasikāra)’ and ‘formlessness (無相 Skt. alakṣaṇa)’ are the synonym of ‘Non-Thought’. ‘Non-Thought’ are also the basic thought of the scriptures of Mahāyāna Buddhism such as the Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith, Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra, Nirvana Sutra, Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra, and others. Shenhui expounded that ‘Non-Thought’ is just like tathatā (眞如 suchness). ‘Non-Thought’ transcends two extreme views on existence and nonexistence and does not arise any discrimination and conceptualization over all perceptual objects. Shenhui identified quiescence (寂靜) with non-abiding (無住) and insisted that they are the substance (or essence) of original wisdom. and he also claimed that prajñā (般若 wisdom) is functioning above the substance. He used the Chinese character ‘見 (insight, awakening)’, and provided the authenticity of his view in terms of 見性 (to see the (buddha-)nature). Regarding the ‘見(awakening)’ he insisted, Shenhuie explained it ‘見無物 (See not a single thing)’. This is where all perception of object and delusion disappeared and prajñā (wisdom) functions. Concerning the method of practice and realization to attain ‘Non-Thought’, Shenhui defined the new definition of sitting meditation and provided the oneness of meditation and wisdom (定慧不二) along with one-practice samādhi absorption (一行三昧). The true meaning of sitting meditation is the detachment from all things and non-abiding in order to see ‘not a single thing’. The thought of oneness of meditation and wisdom is the practical meditation that shows Non-Thought and non-abiding mind. Shenhui says that non-abiding is quiescence (寂靜 tranquility, stillness), a synonym for enlightenment, or nirvāṇa). The function and essence of quiescence is oneness of meditation and wisdom. Accordingly oneness of essence and function practice is the liberation. Shenhui regarded the essence of ‘unattainable’ as samādhi (定), he presupposed prajñā (慧) as subject to see the essence of quiescence. He adopted samādhi and prajñā as the essence and function of Non-Thought. In order to enter directly to the core of the Dharma i.e. one-practice samādhi absorption (一行三昧), we should we should memorize and recite the Diamond Sutra and the teaching on the perfection of wisdom. Shenhui insisted his independent view that the prajñā practice of Non-Thought, the fundamentals of all practice is one-practice samādhi absorption (一行三昧). This one-practice samādhi absorption is Non-Thought and mindlessness and the attainment of prajñā samādhi mentioned in the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch. Shenhui's practice and realization method also has the same connotation with Non-Thought. It seems that Shenhui emphasized this new thought in order to establish the Non-Thought as the principal doctrine of school. Shenhui's Non-Thought Chan of Southern transmission succeeded to the Mazu Daoyi (709–788) and influenced Mazu's disciples and followers. It shows very well that Mazu's thought of ‘This mind is in itself buddha (卽心是佛) · Ordinary mind is the way (平常心是道)’ and Huangbo's thought of ‘Mindlesssness (無心)’, Linji's ‘No business (無事)’ succeeded to the Shenhui's Non-Thought Chan. In the early Chan, during the turning point of Southern school transition period, there was Shenhui's Non-Thought Chan. The Non-Thought Chan is very important thought which was cultivated by Mazu and his disciples and it paved the way for the establishment of patriarchal Chan (祖師禪). This Non-Thought practice method shows the core of Chan practice. All sentient beings have Buddha nature and originally endowed prajñā. As long as we realize that, we can directly attain enlightenment with sudden enlightenment. Therefore this Non-Thought Shenhui's Dhalma talk will leads us here and now to the enlightenment and be an active and positive guideline in our practice.

제9대 까르마빠 왕축 도르제의 마하무드라 연구 : 『마릭뮌쎌(Ma rig mun sel)』을 중심으로

조일문 東國大學校 2018 국내박사

까르마빠는 서기 1110년에 출생한 ‘제1대 까르마빠’를 비롯하여 현재 ‘제17대 까르마빠’에 이르기까지 티베트 불교 체계 내에서 까규 전승 법맥의 수장으로 실질적 명성과 실천행을 이어온 인물이다. 까르마 까규파의 제1대 까르마빠 뒤쑴켄빠로부터 시작된 환생자 제도는 티베트에 이전까지 유례가 없는 새로운 수행 가풍 전승의 제도를 진작하게 되었다. 역대 까르마빠들이 행한 원력행은 이 세간에 불법을 흥성시키고 널리 중생을 이롭게 하는 대승보살의 실천행으로 900 여 년이 지나도록 끊임없이 이어져 오고 있다. 제9대 까르마빠 왕축 도르제(1551∼1603)는 전 생애를 통해 역대 까르마빠의 위업을 달성하고 후학을 제도하는 방편으로 본인 자신의 치열한 마하무드라 수행 성취로 증득한 진리의 체험을 전하고자 힘쓴 인물이다. 마하무드라 법등(法燈) 전승에 괄목할 만한 위업을 이룬 인물로 평가 받는 까르마빠 왕축 도르제의 전기는 독자적이고 개별적으로 전해지는 것은 거의 찾아보기 힘들다. 초대부터 17대 까르마빠까지 이어지는 까르마빠 계보를 중심으로 까규파의 전승 인물들을 총체적으로 소개하는 자료 속에서 드물게 찾아 볼 수 있다. 오늘날 티베트 불교를 대표하는 4대종파의 수행 전통 가운데, ‘수행 가풍(sGrub rgyud)’이라 칭해지는 까규파의 대표적인 수행법 가운데 하나로 자리 잡은 ‘마하무드라’는 서구의 학계를 중심으로 학문적인 측면에서 다수의 연구가 진행되어 다량의 연구 성과가 축적되어 왔다. 마하무드라(Mahāmudrā)는 한문으로 대수인(大手印), 영어 ‘The great Seal’, 티베트어로 착갸 첸뽀(Phyag rgya chen po), 또는 착첸(phyag chen 등으로 표기한다. 인도 밀교 전통과 티베트 불교 내의 모든 종파에서 마하무드라 라는 용어는 다양하게 표현되고 있다. 마하무드라의 가르침을 전한 초기 인도 밀교에서는 단순히 관상 명상을 위한 손동작 무드라(Mudrā;수인)을 지칭하는 용어로 주로 쓰였다. 이후 티베트 토양에서 정착해 가는 과정에서 마하무드라는 티베트 불교 내 까규파의 핵심 가르침으로 채택되고 전승되었다. 그러면서 그 정의와 해석에 다양함을 추가하였다. 마하무드라의 정의와 관련하여 까규파 내에서도 다채로운 이견을 보인다. 예를 들면, 감뽀빠를 비롯한 왕축 도르제와 대다수 마하무드라 전승자들은 근⋅도⋅과(根道果)의 마하무드라를 소개하였다. 그런가 하면 근대 초종파주의를 주도한 잠곤 꽁툴 린포체는 마하무드라를 경교 마하무드라(Sūtra Great Seal), 진언 마하무드라(Mantra Great Seal) 그리고 핵심 마하무드라(Essence Great Seal) 로 정의하고 소개하였다. 이처럼 후대로 내려오면서 마하무드라의 정의와 분류는 그 본래 협의적 의미에서 벗어나 수행자들이 저술한 마하무드라 관련 저술까지 지칭하는 등, 다양하고 광범위한 의미로 통용되었다. 본 연구에서 마하무드라는 마음의 본성을 소개하는 까규파의 핵심 가르침과 왕축 도르제의 저술 등을 포함한 의미에서 주로 사용되었다. 마하무드라가 티베트에 전승되고 까규파 내에서 정착 되어가는 과정에서, 감뽀빠와 그를 중심으로 한 초기 까규파 전승에서 마하무드라의 가르침은 ‘마음의 본질에 대한 소개(Sems kyi ngo sprod)’로 알려졌다. 이 ‘마음의 본질에 대한 소개’ 의 핵심은 제자가 직접 자신 마음의 본질을 보고 깨달을 수 있도록 스승이 유도하는 것이다. 그런 측면에서 감뽀빠와 그를 둘러 싼 당시 까규파 내의 마하무드라 지도법은, 인도 후기밀교에서 필수적으로 행했던 밀승계와 관정 그리고 특수한 형식의 유가 수행을 필수로 하는 것을 전제하지 않는 분위기였다. 제자가 마음의 본질을 바로 볼 수 있도록 지도하였던 점과 관련해서 당대의 석학 쌰꺄 빤디따의 입장에서는 비판의 소지가 다분했다. 쌰꺄 빤디따의 견해로는 당시 이러한 까규파의 마하무드라의 가르침이 형식과 내용 면에서 인도 정통의 마하무드라에서 현격하게 멀어진 것이라 본 것이다. 까르마빠 왕축 도르제가 출생하고 활동한 시기는 16세기 이후가 되는데, 이 시기는 인도에서 티베트로 전해진 불교가 수 세기를 거치는 동안 티베트 땅에 정착한 후 티베트 본토 출신의 위대한 사상가와 수행자를 대거 배출해 내고, 학문적 문화적인 자신감이 고조된 시기라고 말할 수 있다. 까르마빠 왕축 도르제(1556∼1603)가 출생하고, 까르마빠로서의 위업을 달성시킨 정치 사회적 배경은 위(dBus)와 짱(gTsang) 지역을 중심으로 팍모 두빠(1354∼C.1478), 린뿡빠 (1478∼1565) 그리고 짱빠(1565∼1642) 세 가문이 주축으로 통치권을 장악한 이른 바 “3대 패권주의 시대”, 혹은 “패권주의 계승시대”로 칭해지는 긴장과 분열로 격렬하게 대치한 시기가 거의 막바지에 이른 시기였다. 격변하는 종교적, 정치적 배경 속에서도 까르마빠 왕축 도르제는 마하무드라 법맥 전승의 가풍을 역대 까르마빠로부터 전해 받았듯이, 그 또한 후학들에게 전승하는 불사를 지어갔다. 전통적으로 까규파에서는 ‘까르마빠의 마음의 아들(Thugs sras)’이라 칭하는 다수의 전법 제자들을 꼽는다. 이들은 마하무드라 등불의 전승자로서 샤마르 린포체, 시뚜 린포체, 걀찹 린포체, 잠곤 꽁툴 린포체, 빠오 린포체, 떼호 린포체 등이다. 이 여섯 명의 전법 제자 환생자들은 까규 법맥 내에서 여러 생에 걸쳐 상호 밀접한 법연을 이어 온 대표적인 인물이다. 제9대 까르마빠 왕축 도르제의 마하무드라 법등의 전승 측면을 중심으로 고려해 볼 때, 마하무드라 전승사에서 주요한 인물로 확인되는 수많은 석학과 수행자를 거론하게 된다. 본 논문에서는 연구의 주제와 밀접한 관련이 있다고 사료되는 제3대 까르마빠 랑중 도르제, 제8대 까르마빠 미꾀 도르제, 마지막으로 잠곤 꽁툴 린포체로 대상을 한정해서 고찰해 보았다. 그들의 저술과 가르침을 펼친 논서류와 수행 지침서들이 지금에 이르기까지, 조금도 가감 없이 까르마 까규파의 마하무드라 수행 교본으로써 활용되어질 만큼 주요한 위치를 점하고 있기 때문이다. 따라서 본 장에서는 그들 각자의 대략적인 생애와 마하무드라 관련 저술 󰡔마하무드라 기원문(Phyag chen smon lam)󰡕, 󰡔사좌 구루요가(Thun bzh'i bla ma'i rnal 'byor)󰡕, 󰡔마하무드라 예비 수행 의식집󰡕, 그리고 󰡔요의의 등불(Nge don sgron me)󰡕을 중심으로 고찰해 보았다. 제3대 까르마빠 랑중 도르제(1284∼1339)는 마하무드라 성취를 기원하는 󰡔마하무드라 기원문󰡕을 저술하여 깨달음의 법(證法)의 가르침을 후학들에게 전승하였다. 간략한 기원문의 형식이지만 까규파의 마하무드라 가르침의 핵심을 관철하고 있다. 스승의 가피를 청하는 간절한 기원은 구루요가를 통해서 실제 수행으로 이어진다. 제8대 까르마빠 미꾀 도르제(1507∼1554)는 해박한 불교 지식과 응집된 수행력을 바탕으로 󰡔사좌 구루요가󰡕 법본을 저술하였다. 미꾀 도르제의 광범한 저술과 사상은 서구 사회를 중심으로 최근까지 마하무드라 연구의 다양한 주제를 제공하고 있기도 하다. 제9대 까르마빠 왕축 도르제가 저술한 󰡔마하무드라 예비 수행 의식집󰡕은 까르마 까규파에서 실제적인 마하무드라 예비 수행을 하는 동안 반드시 수지 독송 하는 주요한 수행 교본이다. 잠곤 꽁뚤 린포체(1813∼1899)는 근대 티베트 불교의 ‘초종파주의(Ris med) 운동’을 실천한 핵심 인물이다. 그는 󰡔마하무드라 예비 수행 의식집󰡕을 저본으로 하여 딴뜨라 불교인 까르마 까규파의 명상 수행법에 현교적인 가르침과 설명을 제공하는 실질적인 주석서로 중요하게 인식되는 󰡔요의의 등불󰡕을 저술하였다. 왕축 도르제의 생애를 다룬 자료가 많지 않고, 그나마 독립적으로 전하는 것을 찾아보기 어렵다. 그렇지만 까규 전승 법맥을 소개하는 자료 속에서는 단편적으로 찾아 볼 수 있다. 주로 티베트어와 영어로 소개된 자료다. 까르마빠 왕축 도르제가 일생 동안 전법과 마하무드라 저술 활동, 대중 교화의 근거지로 삼았던 ‘대홍법 진영’은 ‘행동하고 움직이는 사원’이라고 할 수 있다. 여기서 마하무드라 관련 저술 광중약본 󰡔마하무드라󰡕와 마하무드라 수행 관련 논서 등을 저술하는 등 광범한 불사를 행하였다. 일생 동안 그가 행한 불사는 이론적이고 본질적인 개념화를 꺼리는 마하무드라를 언설로 풀이하고 이해시키는, 탁월하고 도전적인 까르마빠로서의 행업을 달성한 것이라고 정의할 수 있다. 본 논문은 왕축 도르제의 마하무드라 󰡔마릭뮌쎌(Ma rig mun sel)󰡕을 중심으로 연구를 진행하였다. 󰡔마릭뮌쎌󰡕은 내용을 1. 예비 수행, 2. 본 수행, 3. 마무리 수행으로 구분하여 구성하고 있다. 먼저 예비 수행은 귀의와 발심명상에서 등무간연까지 총 12항목으로 구성되어 있다. 본 수행은 지와 관 수행의 두 부분으로 크게 나누어 설명되어지고 있다. 먼저 본 수행의 첫 번째 적정명상인 지(止, śamatha)를 몸과 마음의 올바른 자세 취하기부터 지 수행을 통해 얻는 세 가지 이익(대락, 밝음, 무망념)까지 8항목으로 나누어 설명한다. 마하무드라의 본 수행 두 번째는 관(觀, Vipaśyanā)이다. 이는 내면의 통찰 명상으로 자신의 마음을 바라보고 마음의 작용에 집중하는 수행이다. 8단계의 관 수련 과정은 모두 이전 단계인 지를 바탕으로 알아차림을 다지고 훈련하는 과정을 설명한다. 이러한 마하무드라 본 수행인 지와 관의 가르침을 원만히 성취하면 마지막으로 심화된 수행을 다른 차원의 수행에 적용시키는 마무리 수행을 하게 된다. 마무리 수행은 마하무드라 수행을 4가지 행에 결합하는 법에서부터 결론에 이르기까지 모두 여섯 항목으로 구성되어 있다. 왕축 도르제는 마무리 수행 결론에서, 마하무드라의 가르침은 반드시 자격 있는 스승으로부터 직접 소개 받아야 한다고 강조하면서 근⋅도⋅과(根道果)의 마하무드라를 소개한다. 모든 사람은 무시이래로 번뇌장과 소지장에 가려지지 않은 ‘청정한 본래 마음자리’, 혹은 ‘마하무드라’를 갖추고 있는데 이것을 ‘근(根)의 마하무드라’라고 하였다. 이러한 ‘근의 마하무드라’를 찾아 닦아 나가는 5도 10지를 이루는 과정을 ‘도(道)의 마하무드라’로 하였다. 그러한 제반 수행 과정을 통해서 본래 밝은 자리에 돌아간 것을 ‘과(果)의 마하무드라’라고 소개하였다. 왕축 도르제는 본래 마음자리인 마하무드라를 소개하고 그것을 되찾아 쓰는 과정의 수행법을 알려준 뒤 결론에서 말한다. “마하무드라는 상근기의 도이며, 최상의 도를 성취하는 방편으로 스승이 보여 줄 수도 없다. 제자가 배워 알 것이 없고 말로써 가리켜 보일 수도 없다. 일체를 감싸고 있으면서 대락과 공성, 밝음과 공성, 현상과 공성 등 일체 분별을 여읜 것이므로 분별 사량으로 헤아릴 수 없는 것”이라 하였다. 마하무드라의 가르침은 우리의 마음에 분별 망념과 법신이 본래적으로 함께 하고 있는 것임을 자각하도록 하는 것이다. 이를 ‘마하무드라 구생 수행(Phyag rgya chen po lhan cig skyes sbyor)’이라 하였다. 이러한 개념은 한국 불교의 간화선 전통에 있어서도 낯설지 않은 표현이다. 선가(禪家)에서 말하는 생함이 없고 멸함이 없는(無生無滅) 청정한 자심(自心) 자리를 바로 보아 직지인심(直指人心) 하는 자리를 보여 줌과 다름이 없다. 한국의 선가에서 익숙한 표현을 빌어 말한다면, 근원적으로 원만하게 갖추어진 각자의 마음자리를 ‘근의 마하무드라’, 본래 청정한 마음자리를 화두 일념으로 참구해 가는 과정을 ‘도의 마하무드라’, 화두를 타파하여 본래의 마음 자리를 되찾아 환지본처(還地本處) 한 것을 ‘과의 마하무드라’라는 표현으로 대응해 볼 수 있다. 이처럼 예비 수행과 두 가지 본 수행 지와 관, 그리고 마무리 수행으로 구성된 󰡔마릭뮌쎌󰡕은 마하무드라 수행 성취를 위한 정형화된 가르침이라 할 수 있다. 마지막 장은 본서에서 문자화 하여 직접적으로 보이지는 않지만 수행 성취의 여부를 결정짓는 헌신에 관한 내용이다. 마하무드라 수행의 성취는 스승의 가피와 제자의 헌신에 달려 있다고 할 만큼 헌신의 항목도 대단히 중요한 요인으로 사료되었다. 따라서 마하무드라 수행 체계 전반에 흐르는 헌신의 개념을 까규의 제반 논서를 바탕으로 일고해 보았다. 결론적으로 본 연구는 아직껏 한국에 구체적으로 소개되지 않은 인물 티베트 불교 까규파 내 제9대 까르마빠 왕축 도르제에 주안점을 두고 진행하였다. 주된 주제는 왕축 도르제가 마하무드라의 가르침을 전하기 위해 저술한 마하무드라 수행 교본 『마릭뮌쎌』을 중심으로 연구를 진행하였다. 그것은 티베트 불교 전통 속에 자리 잡은 마하무드라와 그 수행 체계를 고찰하여 한국 불교의 교학과 수행 체계 속에서 공존하는 방안을 도모해 보고자 한 미비한 시도였다. 향후 이 분야에 학계의 심도 깊은 연구 성과와 실수행의 실천이 수반되기를 기대한다. This thesis investigates the 9th Karmapa dBang phyug rdo rje(1555-1603) and his Ma rig mun sel, the Great Seal instructions. It demonstrates that the 9th Karmapa was not only one of the most vital leader or scholar of his school, but one who taught and mastered its highest meditative precepts. This thesis argues that analysing dBang phyug rdo rje's Mahāmudrā teachings through studying instruction-related genres in their historical, doctrinal, and literary contexts reveals a pedagogical pragmatism. About the biographies of 9th Karmapa dBang phyug rdo rje, the religious history of Tibet by interpreting a number of previously unstudied Tibetan sources are selected. The main textual sources are selected mainly spiritual biographies from the Collected Works of the 9th Karmapa and bKa' brgyud gser phrengs. Actually Mahāmudrā is not so much popular in the system of the Korean Buddhist doctrinal and meditative systems. So the main purpose of this study is to introduce the Mahāmudrā and the systems of it's practice which is in the tradition of the Tibetan Buddhism. Chapter One engages with historical previous research in Korean Buddhist academic and meditative systems and justifies the methodologies which is employed in this thesis. Chapter Two elaborates key points of the Mahāmudrā which is introduced and spread in India and Tibet bKa' brgyud pa. As a brief overview, Mahāmudrā, usually translated as 'The Great Seal' is a vital term and of very importance in the latter day Buddhist traditions of India (9th-12th. century) and it occupied a essential place in Tibetan Buddhist doctrinal and meditative systems. Mahāmudrā has various connotations. It was called a Hand-gesture displayed in Tantric rituals, and one of a kind of experiences of one's progress in advanced Tantric meditation. Mahāmudrā is an independent instruction conveying the essence of the teachings, which can be taught as either tantric or non-tantric, and establishes the teacher as the main unifying spiritual element of Mahāmudrā instructions and practices. In Tibet, many kinds of masters who stands at the source of major Tibetan lineages included Mahāmudrā in their subject of teachings. So to speak, to some degree, Mahāmudrā was important for the most of these lineages. For the bKa' brgyud lineage, it would very essential and through the influences of bKa' brgyud masters it would gain more significance among the other schools. sGam po pa(1079– 1153), who began the process of organizing the bKa' brgyud into a religious order, and it was he, too, who brought Mahāmudrā firmly to the center of the bKa' brgyud. For sGampopa, Mahāmudrā could relate to either the Sūtras or the Tantras or perhaps as a combine and transcend the two. He transmitted a number of distinctive Mahāmudrā practices, including such instantaneous methods as the 'White Panacea', and such gradual techniques as Joining the Co-emergent and the Four Yogas: one-pointedness, non-elaboration, single taste, and non-meditation. Gampopa also was renowned for introducing a Sūtra-vehicle Mahāmudrā practice that did not require tantric initiation but only an experiential introduction to the nature of one’s mind through the ‘pointing-out instruction’ (ngo sprod) of the guru. At times, he simply described Mahāmudrā as the realization of the nature of the ordinary mind. As was pointed out, in the thirteenth century aspects of the Mahāmudrā of the bKa' brgyud pa became highly contested. And, though Mahāmudrā teachers like Lama Zhang had already been criticised, Sa skya Pandita's(1182-1251) critique had a lasting impact. Recently David Jackson summarised Sa skya Pandita's critique like this: Sa skya Pandita did not agree that 1. a single method or factor (even insight into emptiness presented as Mahāmudrā doctrine) could suffice soteriologically, that 2. the wisdom of the Mahāmudrā could arise through an exclusively non- conceptual method, and 3. that the Great Seal could ever be taught outside the Mantrayana. Chapter Three elaborates the succession of the key points of the Mahāmudrā of bKa' brgyud pa through some of their contexts written by bKa' brgyud masters. The Marpa bKa' brgyud and later Dwags po bka' brgyud(the lineages which passed through sGam po pa) are meditative traditions whose essential practices comprise Mahāmudrā, the Great Seal and the six doctrins of Naro pa. Historically speaking, all the Karmapas in Tibetan buddhism played a very important and special role in the preservation of the bKa' brgyud lineage through contributing to the bKa' brgyud lineage scriptures. For example, the first Karmapa, Dus gsum mkhyen pa(1110-1193), 2nd Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (1206-1282), and ninth Karmapa, dBang phyug rdo rje(1556-1603) are known for their exceptional accomplishments in meditation and their contribution of writings mainly focused on the Mahāmudrā practice lineage. The third Karmapa, Rang 'byung rdo rje(1284-1339), the seventh Karmapa Chos grags rgya mtsho (1454-1506), and the eighth Karmapa Mi bskyod rdo rje(1507-1554), are renowned for their scholastic works in Sūtra and Tantra commentaries. The tenth Karmapa Chos dbying rdo rje(1604-1674) was the one of the great artist and poet. Following sGam po pa's time, there appeared the so-called The Four main and eight minor bKa' brgyud schools, also named 'Dwags po bKa' brgyud' after sGam po pa's native land. The four main schools are; (1) ‘Phag Gru bka' brgyud (2)Tshal Pa bka' brgyud (3)‘Ba’ Rom bka' brgyud (4)Kam Tshang Or Karma bka' brgyud. The eight minor bKa' brgyud schools or the eight additional or sub- schools of the bka' brgyud lineage have developed within the ‘Phag Gru bka' brgyud. It is; 1. ‘Dri gung bka' brgyud 2. ‘brug pa bka' brgyud 3. sTag lung bka' brgyud 4. g⋅Yab bzang bka' brgyud 5. Khro phu bka' brgyud 6. Shug gseb bka' brgyud 7. Yel pa bka' brgyud 8. sMar tshang bka' brgyud. The Karma bka' brgyud lineage has played a very important role in preserving and continuing, not only the Karma bka' brgyud, but also the entirety of the bka' brgyud transmissions that have been passed down from Marpa, Milarepa and sGampopa. The Karma bka' brgyud lineage is one of the most influential of the Tibetan buddhist lineages outside Tibet, and this tradition is studied and practiced all around the world today. Chapter Four delineates 9th Karmapa dBang phyug rdo rje's biographies. dBang phyug rdo rje(1556–1603) was one of the highly renowned scholar and most powerful mystical teacher in bKa' brgyud pa tradition of Mahāmudrā. Which is outlines his programme for Mahāmudrā practice and teaching. dBang phyug rdo rje was born in the year of the Fire Dragon (1556), in the country of lower Treho. His father was Ador and his mother was Lingza Alo. At the age of twenty-four, in the presence of the entire Sangha, he took vows of full ordination with the Fifth Zhamar Könchok Yenlak as the abbot, Gyaltsap Drakpa Paljor as the ritual master, and Khawang Namgyal Drakpa as the private questioner. When he was forty-eight, in the Water Hare Year(1603), at dawn amid wondrous signs he passed into the expanse of all phenomena. Chapter Five investigates dBang phyug rdo rje's own writing of Mahāmudrā text Ma rig mun sel consists of three parts; Ⅰ. The First Part: Preliminary Practice. Ⅱ. The Second Part: Main Practice ⅰ) Mental Quiescence(止;Samatha), Main Practice ⅱ) Penetrative Insight meditation(觀;Vipassana). Ⅲ.The Third Part: Enhancing Practice Ⅰ. The First Part, The First Preliminaries practice consists of 12 parts; ①Refuge, Prostration and Bodhicitta. ②Vajrasattva meditation. ③Mandala Offering. ④Guru Yoga. ⑤Death and Impermanence. ⑥Karma and the Law of Cause and Effect. ⑦The Disadvantages of Samsara. ⑧The Precious human rebirth. ⑨The Causal Condition for Success. ⑩The main condition. ⑪The Objective Condition. ⑫The Immediate Condition. Ⅱ. The Second Part, The Second main practice consists of two parts; Main Practice ⅰ) consists of 8 parts; ①The essential postures of body and mind. ②Focusing on a visual object. ③Other sensory object. ④Eliminating mental dullness and agitation. ⑤Focusing on no object. ⑥Focusing on the breath and the Three stages of settling the mind. ⑦Eliminating mental tightness and looseness. ⑧The actual state of mental quiescence and the Three boons. Main Practice ⅱ) consists of 8 parts; ①Looking at the settled mind. ②Looking at Recognising the nature of the settled mind. ③Looking at the mind reflecting appearances and at the mind in relationth to the body. ④Looking at the settled and moving minds together. ⑤Recognising the nature of the settled mind. ⑥Recognising the nature of the moving or thinking mind. ⑦Recognising the nature of the mind reflecting appearnances and of the mind in relation to the body. ⑧Recognising the nature of the settled and moving minds together. Ⅲ. The Third Part, Enhancing Practice consists of 6 parts; ①Combining Mahāmudrā with other practices and the four activities. ②The five distorted views, three skills and four buddha bodies. ③The three places where you can deviate and the four where you can lose voidness. ④The danger points where things can arise as an enemy and other interferences. ⑤The benefits of the practices and the stages and paths according to Mahāmudrā. ⑥Concluding definitions. It concludes by asserting the importance of the concept of Devotion. The Tibetan phrase 'Mos gus(devotion)’ leaves no room for doubt that it is the means to give rise to realisation, and not just one of several competing possibilities. There are many bKa' brgyud pa masters who assert that devotion alone is the means that makes realisation arise. For example, sGampopa said that the guru-devotion of the last moment(the moment where the culmination of the path is reached), in which one “sees the guru as Dharmakāya,” is the single means of realisation. Suerly it is a ‘single means’ in the sense that it alone is capable of producing the final result, but without being a completely isolated means. Returning to the Guru-devotion as the single means to realisation, here address (1) How is this devotion characterised? and (2) Why is it supposed to function as a means to realise Mahāmudrā? Also 9th Karmapa dBang phyug rdo rje explains at the begining part of the Mahāmudrā Foundational practices, "Especially the 'Dwags po bKa' brgyud' is the lineage of devotion, and there are huge blessings from the Guru, so Students should exert for Mahāmudrā practice..." As a conclusion, There can be no doubt that for 'devotion’ namely ‘Guru- devotion’ was the single decisive means for someone aspiring to realise Mahāmudrā within a single life time. This reserch tried to find out the key how to unify the Mahāmudrā and the systems of it's practice, which is not so much popular in Korea, and the Korean Buddhist doctrinal and meditative systems. Key Words: Karmapa, dBang phyug rdo rje, Mahāmudrā, Ma rig mun sel, bKa' brgyud pa, bKa' brGyud gSer Phreng, Mos Gus(Guru-devotion).