Institutionalizing Gender-Based Violence in African Democracies : A Comparative Analysis of South Africa and Botswana

강경희 서울대학교 대학원 2022 국내석사

젠더기반폭력(이하 젠더폭력)은 여성의 인권과 건강을 위협할 뿐만 아니라 ‘지속가능한 발전’의 달성을 지연시킨다는 점에서 국제사회가 당면한 가장 중요하고 시급한 문제 중 하나이다. 유엔은 새천년개발목표 (MDGs, 2000)와 지속가능발전목표 (SDGs, 2015)를 수립하며 할례 등 악습과 가정폭력을 비롯한 다양한 형태의 젠더폭력의 근절을 지구촌 공동의 과제로 채택했지만, 여전히 여성 3명 중 1명 이상이 폭력을 경험하고 있다. 특히, 아프리카 지역은 전 세계에서 젠더폭력의 발생률이 가장 높으며, 법제도적 및 사회문화적 특성에 기반을 둔 다층적인 성불평등 요소들로 인해 젠더폭력의 문제가 매우 심각하다. 한편, 아프리카의 대표적인 민주주의 국가인 남아프리카공화국과 보츠와나의 경우 두 국가가 가진 지역적, 역사적, 정치적 공통점에도 불구하고, 두 나라의 젠더폭력의 발생률은 각각 34%, 24%로 큰 차이가 있다. 본 연구는 이 차이가 두 나라의 제도적 배경 및 특성과 관련이 있다고 가정하고, 남아프리카공화국과 보츠와나의 헌법, 여성정치참여, 시민사회운동이 젠더폭력 발생에 미치는 영향을 분석한다. 이를테면, 두 국가에서 헌법 상 인권과 성평등을 어떻게 다루는지, 관련 헌법 조문이 젠더폭력 관련 입법과 법원의 판결에 각각 어떤 영향을 미치는지, 여성의 정치참여가 피해자 보호 및 폭력 예방과 관련된 정책 수립과 어떤 연관이 있는지, 그리고 시민사회운동이 성별 간 불평등한 권력관계를 규정하는 법제도와 사회적 인식을 어떻게 변화시키는지 등을 살펴본다. 연구 결과 두 나라 간 헌법과 여성의 정치참여 수준에 큰 차이가 있으며, 법∙정치적 요인이 젠더폭력의 발생 및 예방에 미치는 영향이 상당함을 확인했다. 또한, 정치적 실천으로서 여성을 대상으로 한 폭력에 대한 사회적 인식과 행동의 변화를 이끄는 시민사회운동의 기능도 확인했다. 이러한 함의를 바탕으로 법과 정치, 시민사회 각각의 역할에 대한 논의를 이어간다면, 젠더폭력 문제에 있어 보다 근본적인 해결책을 모색하고 젠더 정의의 달성에 한 발 가까워질 수 있을 것이다. The gender-based violence is one of the most critical and imperative problems of the world, which not only harms women’s rights and health but retards the world’s sustainable development of which central principle is “leave no one behind” (2030 Agenda). Even though the UN has targeted the elimination of gender-based violence and harmful practices against women and girls as global development goals, via the Millennium Development Goals (2000) and the Sustainable Development Goals (2015), a number of women are still experiencing violence by their partners or non-partners. In particular, women in the African region, where violence against women is most prevalent in the world, are significantly vulnerable to abuses because of multi-layered gender inequality factors that are deeply rooted in their legal-institutional and socio-cultural circumstances. Recognizing the struggles of African countries with addressing women’s violence, this research aims to examine the significance of institutional backgrounds on gender-based violence through a comparative analysis of South Africa and Botswana, the representative democracies of Africa. While the two states have regional, historical and political commonalities, it is noteworthy that there exists a huge gap between the prevalence of gender-based violence in South Africa and Botswana. To figure out the causal factors of the different levels of violence against women in two states, the research explores the differences between the two states’ institutional frameworks and their implications on the prevalence of gender-based violence. Adopting feminist institutionalism as the analytical background, this paper examines three dimensions of democracy – the constitutions, women’s political representation, and civil society movements – and their impacts on gender-based violence in South Africa and Botswana. In three dimensions, the research explores how the states constitutionalize human rights and gender equality and how the constitutional provisions influence legislation and judicial decisions regarding violence against women. It also looks into how the number of women’s seats in parliament matters to legislation and policy-making for the prevention of violence, and what is the role of women’s rights advocacies to create changes in institutions or social response around relative issues like unequal gender relations and use of violence against women. Based on the results of the comparative analysis, South Africa and Botswana have critical differences in their constitutional provisions about gender disparity as well as in their women’s political representation. This divergence gives an explanation of the relationship between the institutional environment and the prevalence of violence against women. On the other hand, the impacts of gender advocacies have been crucial as they led the social awareness changes and initiated institutional reforms, especially in Botswana. The findings of this research underline the significance of the gender lens in legal and political institutions as well as the role of civil society movements, which may overcome the institutional limitations, for the essential resolution of the matter of gender-based violence and the achievement of further gender justice.

Women’s empowerment in Vietnam: Bridging the Gap between Policy and Practice of the National Strategy on Gender Equality 2011-2020

웬반안 서울대학교 대학원 2022 국내석사

본 논문은 2011~2020년 기간 동안 베트남의 정치, 경제, 사회 성평등 국가전략(NSGE)의 전반적인 성과를 평가하고 사회문화적 요인이 정치와 경제에서 양성평등을 달성하는 데 미치는 영향을 분석한다. 논문은 이 국가전략의 시행이 긍정적인 결과를 낳았지만, 최근 몇 년간 베트남의 양성평등 개선 진전이 둔화될 조짐을 보이고 있으며, 베트남의 경제 성장과 사회 발전에 상응하는 중대한 성과에 미치지 못한다고 주장한다. 주로 사회문화적 목표에 초점을 맞춘 22개 목표 중 15개를 달성했지만, 이 국가전략이 정치 영역에서 아무런 목표도 달성하지 못하고 경제 분야에서 목표의 절반만 달성했다는 사실은 베트남의 성 불평등이 분야별로 크게 나뉘고 있음을 보여준다. 이 전략의 진전을 방해하는 근본적인 원인으로는 정치 참여에 있어서의 성 고정관념, 경제에서의 성차별의 형태, 그리고 양성평등을 촉진하는 데 중요한 역할을 하는 필요한 사회 서비스의 부족 등이 있다. 따라서 베트남의 양성평등을 높이기 위해서는 여성이 정치, 경제, 사회에 보다 적극적으로 참여할 수 있도록 하는 정책과 관행의 간극을 메우는 것이 필수적이다. This thesis evaluates the overall performance of Vietnam’s National Strategy on Gender Equality (NSGE) in politics, economy and society for the period of 2011-2020 and analyses the influence of socio-cultural factors on achieving gender equality in politics and economy. The thesis argues that while the implementation of this national strategy has yielded positive results, Vietnam’s progress in improving gender equality in recent years shows signs of slowing down and falls short of significant achievements commensurate with the country’s economic growth and social development. While achieving fifteen out of its twenty-two goals focusing mainly on socio-cultural objectives, the fact that this national strategy failed to achieve any targets in the political realm and only half of its targets in economics shows that Vietnam’s gender inequality is largely divided by sectors. Fundamental causes that hinder the progress of this strategy include gender stereotypes in political participation, forms of gender discrimination in the economy, and lack of necessary social services that play an important role in promoting gender equality. Therefore, bridging the gap between policy and practice that empower women to participate more actively in politics, economics and society is essential to improve gender equality in Vietnam.

Assessing interventions for reducing gender-based occupational stereotypes: A multi-method study comparing the Implicit Association Test to indirect and explicit measures of stereotypes, and an examination of sex roles and entity versus incremental lay theories of social perception

Matheus, Carolyn C State University of New York at Albany 2010 해외박사(DDOD)

Certain occupations are often stereotyped as feminine (e.g., elementary school teacher) while others are stereotyped as masculine (e.g., engineer) (White, Kruczek, Brown, & White, 1989; White & White, 2006). This study proposed using multiple methods to assess stereotypical judgments about the masculinity and femininity of five occupations: engineer, law enforcement officer, accountant, fashion designer, and elementary school teacher. Implicit, indirect, and explicit assessments were used to measure gender-based stereotypes of occupations to examine similarities or differences between the different methods. Implicit assessments involve measuring automatic evaluations to stimuli, while indirect assessments involve gender-ratings of attributes associated with occupations. Both implicit and indirect measurements leave participants relatively unaware of what is being measured. On the other hand, explicit assessments (e.g., surveys) make the nature of the study known because people are explicitly asked questions pertaining to the variables of interest. The current study constructively replicated and improved upon White and White's (2006) study of implicit and explicit occupational gender stereotypes by accounting for several limitations of White and White's study. White and White found engineering to be characterized as a masculine occupation, elementary school teacher was characterized as a feminine occupation, and accountant was characterized as a gender neutral occupation, regardless of whether the occupations were measured implicitly or explicitly. Their study was limited by the use of college students as the sample, as well as their limited range of occupations. The current study improved upon White and White's study by using a sample of working adults, and by analyzing two additional occupations: law enforcement officer and fashion designer. Gender-based occupational stereotypes were examined using the Implicit Association Test (IAT), an indirect measure, as well as bi-polar and uni-polar explicit scales. The IAT implicitly measured stereotypes that people may not express on explicit self-report measures. Two interventions for reducing stereotypes were also examined in an experimental design. Participants were either shown a gender counter-stereotypical picture or given instructions to imagine their own image of a "strong woman." The interventions were intended to reduce gender-based stereotypes of occupations by introducing relevant counter-stereotypic information. However, the interventions were not found to be effective. Two factors were examined as moderators of the impact of the interventions on reducing gender-based stereotypes of occupations. First, a person's theory about the fixedness or malleability of traits is thought to affect stereotypical judgments. Participants completed the Implicit Person Theory Measure to assess whether the participants perceived traits as fixed (entity theory) or malleable (incremental theory). Participants' theories of traits were hypothesized to moderate the effects of the interventions. In particular, persons who adopt an entity theory were predicted to be less influenced by counter-stereotypic information (e.g., a counter-stereotypic picture or the use of counter-stereotypic mental imagery) aimed at reducing stereotypes. On the other hand, persons who adopt an incremental theory were predicted to be more influenced by interventions aimed at reducing stereotypes. Lay theory was not found to moderate the impact of interventions on stereotype reduction, possibly a result of the interventions themselves. Second, the current study examined respondents' sex role as a factor that potentially moderates the impact the interventions have on reducing stereotypes. The extent to which people describe themselves in terms of masculine characteristics (e.g., assertive, aggressive, independent) or feminine characteristics (e.g., gentle, compassionate, sensitive to the needs of others) may influence interventions aimed at reducing stereotypes. For example, people adopting a masculine sex role may be more likely to accept stereotypes that certain occupations are better suited for men, while people adopting a feminine sex role may be more likely to accept stereotypes that certain occupations are better suited for women. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) was used to assess gender role perceptions. Sex role was not found to be a moderator of the impact of interventions aimed at reducing stereotypes. Finally, the different implicit, indirect, and explicit measures were examined and compared to one another. A variance index was created for each of the four scales to generate single scale scores that could be compared to one another and the IAT. Results indicate the implicit and explicit measures may be measuring different constructs and highlight the important of using multiple methods to accurately capture complex information such as gender-based stereotypes about occupations.

Maximizing Local Gender Network for Gender Mainstreaming : A comparative analysis of ADB and Japan in Vietnam and Cambodia

Yeri Shim 서울대학교 대학원 2022 국내박사

본 논문은 지속가능하고 전환적인 성 주류화 ODA 확대의 주요 요인을 ADB와 일본의 베트남 및 캄보디아에서의 프로젝트 비교연구를 통해 도출하고 유형화하는 연구이다. 성 주류화는 정책 전분야단계에 걸쳐 모든 여성과 남성의 이해와 관심을 우선시하는 전략으로 1995년 북경에서 개최된 유엔 세계여성대회에서 채택된 국제규범이다. 선행연구에 따르면 성 주류화는 궁극적으로 성평등 달성을 주요 목표로 한다는 점에는 이견이 없으나 본 전략의 전환적 가능성(transformative potential)을 어떻게 평가할 것인지에 관해서는 합의가 이루어지지 않은 상황이다. 본 연구는 공여주체가 중심이 되어 개발된 성 주류화 전략과 성 주류화 전략의 협력대상이 되는 개발도상국 사회의 맥락 간의 간극을 극복하기 위해 로컬젠더네트워크(local gender network) 활용이 필수적임을 검증하고자 한다. 본 연구는 공여기관의 성평등 달성에 관한 커미트먼트(commitment)와 수원국 내 로컬젠더네트워크의 연결성을 전환적인 성 주류화를 구성하는 2대 주요 요소로 상정하고, 이에 따라 각 사례별 유형화를 시도한다. 공여기관의 커미트먼트는 개별 프로젝트 수준에서 적용 가능한 젠더액션플랜(gender action plan) 등의 절차적 요소(procedural measures) 구축 여부와 프로젝트 수준에서 현지인 젠더 전문가 적극활용 여부에 따라 명목적(nominal) 혹은 실질적(substantive) 수준으로 구분한다. 성 주류화 유형을 결정하는 또 다른 축은 수원국 내 로컬젠더네트워크이며, 이는 수원국의 국가여성기구(national women’s machinery), 수원국 출신의 젠더 전문가(gender expert), 젠더 의제를 갖고 활동하는 수원국의 시민사회단체 등 3개 그룹으로 정의한다. 각 그룹의 성 주류화 ODA에 대한 역할 및 참여 방식을 중심으로 확장적(extended connectivity) 혹은 제한적(partial connectivity) 네트워크로 구분한다. 이에 따라 본 연구는 성 주류화를 공여기관의 실질적 커미트먼트와 수원국의 확장된 로컬젠더네트워크가 결합했을 때 나타나는 전환적(transformative) 성 주류화, 수원국의 로컬젠더네트워크가 제한적일 경우 드러나는 기술관료적(technocratic) 성 주류화, 수원국이 확장된 로컬젠더네트워크를 구축하고 있음에도 불구하고 이를 활용하고자 하는 공여기관의 제도가 미비한 경우 보이는 잠재적(potential) 성 주류화, 공여기관의 커미트먼트와 로컬젠더네트워크 모두 제한적인 수준일 때 성 주류화가 작동 불가(malfunctioned)한 경우, 총 4개의 유형으로 도출한다. 또한 성 주류화 유형이 변화할 경우 이에 대한 판단의 근거가 되는 체크리스트를 마련해 전환적인 성 주류화는 정책(policy level) 및 프로젝트 수준(project level)에서의 성 주류화뿐 아니라 사회 전반(society level)에 걸친 변화를 수반해야 한다는 것을 증명한다. 특히, 본 연구는 그간 성 주류화 ODA와 연결하여 연구가 많이 이루어지지 않은 유상원조를 주요 자금 흐름으로 하는 인프라 개발 프로젝트를 분석 대상으로 하여, 유상원조 방식을 주로 제공하는 대표적인 다자원조기구와 양자원조기구로 ADB와 일본을, 또한 비록 속도에는 차이가 있지만 GDP 성장에 따라 점차 ODA 무상원조를 졸업하며 원조차관 확보에 관심을 돌리고 있는 베트남과 캄보디아 사례를 통해 위 유형화를 분석한다. 분석틀로는 정책이전(policy transfer) 연구와 제도분석틀(Institutional Analysis and Development)을 적용하며, 연구방법으로는 공여기관 및 수원국 정부 정책 등의 내용 분석(content analysis) 및 현지조사를 통한 인터뷰 분석을 실시하였다. 공여기관 및 수원국 선정에 있어서는 OECD CRS 데이터를 활용하였으며, 현지조사는 2019년 베트남과 캄보디아에서 수행하였다. 인터뷰는 ADB 및 JICA 현지사무소 외에도 해당 국가에 진출해 있는 공여기구, 수원국 정부부처, 현지 젠더 전문가, 현지 시민사회단체 등을 대상으로 했다. 수원국의 경제규모가 성장함에 따라 무상원조의 기회가 감소하고 있으며 이는 다양한 독립적(standalone) 젠더 사업의 감소에 영향을 미치고 있다. 일본은 독립적 젠더 프로젝트에 있어서는 수원국의 여성부, 여성연맹 등 정부부처 및 국가산하기관과는 오랜 기간 파트너십을 구축해왔으나, 일본 ODA 주류라고 할 수 있는 원조차관을 수반하는 인프라 개발 프로젝트에는 성 주류화가 제한적인 것으로 나타났다. 반면, 원조차관 프로젝트에 현지인 출신의 젠더 전문가를 동원하는 ADB의 제도가 전환적인 성 주류화를 향한 적극적인 시도라고 보여진다. 그러나 본 연구결과 공여기관의 커미트먼트가 해당 개발도상국 사회 내 성 주류화에 미치는 영향은 정책적 수준과 개별 프로젝트 수준에 국한되며, 개도국 사회전반에 걸친 성 주류화를 위해서는 무엇보다 젠더 의제와 관련하여 주인의식(ownership)을 갖고 활발히 활동하는 로컬젠더네트워크가 갖춰져 있는지 여부가 핵심 관건이라고 판단된다. The purpose of this study is to find conditions for sustainable and transformative gender mainstreaming in the local context of development assistance. Despite global efforts to mainstream gender in development for decades, the field faces an ongoing dilemma with greater exposure and visibility of the agenda on the one hand and remaining challenges in implementation leading to transformative results on the other. Although general consensus holds that a clear goal of achieving gender equality is embedded in gender mainstreaming, agreement on how to assess such transformative potential is a remaining task. Building on the previous studies, which stressed a context-specific definition of gender mainstreaming, this research seeks to contribute to this challenging question in the global context of growing reliance on loan instruments in relation to ODA flows. Highlighting the global-local nexus in gender mainstreaming, the research constructs a typology of gender mainstreaming, combining donors’ commitment to gender equality and the connectivity within the local gender network in recipient countries. Donors’ commitment to gender equality is categorized into nominal and substantive commitment depending on their mechanisms to translate gender policies to the individual project level and engage with local gender experts. The local gender network comprises three groups invested in achieving gender equality and mainstreaming gender in the country: national women’s machinery, local gender experts, and local gender CSOs. Depending on the connectivity of the local gender network, it is classified as either extended or partial. When a donor’s substantive commitment encounters an extended local gender network, the result is transformative gender mainstreaming. Although a donor’s commitment may be substantive, when it is operated in a developing country with a partial local gender network, it is likely to result in technocratic gender mainstreaming. On the other hand, a donor’s commitment may be limited to a nominal level, but the local gender network may be active. Such a case is termed potential gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming malfunctions when a donor with nominal commitment operates in a country with a partially connected local gender network. Along with the typology, a checklist is also devised to discern change in typology and each actor’s functions causing such change. While studies on gender experts have focused on international experts, this study attempts to highlight the role of national gender experts in the recipient countries. The research is also distinctive in its attempt to apply the typology and checklist to gender mainstreaming in ODA loan projects in the infrastructure sector, which has been less explored in the field. For case studies, ADB and Japan are selected as donors sending out high proportion of ODA loan. Vietnam and Cambodia, the recipient countries with higher amount of ODA loan compared to grants, are examined. As for the analytical framework, the study combines policy translation and the International Development Cooperation Octangle proposed by the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework. Methodology includes content analysis of international donors and developing countries’ documents on development priorities and plans, OECD data analysis uploaded at CRS, and field research in Vietnam and Cambodia. Amidst the dwindling opportunities for ODA grants in the field of gender and development for certain developing countries going through economic development, it is crucial to mainstream gender in the growing section of ODA loans. In doing so, this research argues for efforts to maximize the local gender network. In the case of JICA’s operations in Vietnam and Cambodia, the main partners for standalone gender projects are the national gender focal points in each country. However, there is no mechanism installed to include local gender experts in their mainstream loan operations. On the other hand, ADB is focused on integrating gender into their mainstream loan projects through actively engaging with local gender experts. While the donors’ commitment to gender equality is important, the research also finds that its impact is limited to gender mainstreaming at policy and project levels. The comparative analysis of the local gender network in Vietnam and Cambodia suggests that, for gender mainstreaming to have a society-wide impact, it requires changes in the local context. Mainly, it discovers the significance of the dual role played by gender experts as an ODA consultant in loan projects and a CSO activist of domestic gender issues. The difference in the national mechanisms between the two countries, which have an impact in the space for civil society organizations to participate in gender advocacy, is also examined. The typology locates gender mainstreaming in a broader framework of a whole of society advocacy for gender in a developing country. At the same time, it suggests a field-oriented approach to assessing gender mainstreaming, which involves inputs from both global and local actors.

Gender-mainstreaming in official development assistance(ODA) : a comparative study on Sweden, Japan and Korea

김수정 경희대학교 평화복지대학원 2015 국내석사

From “welfare approach” to “gender-mainstreaming”, the theoretical discourse on women illustrates gender as a core element in international development. Urging the international political bodies to systematically incorporate gender perspectives in all policies and programs, this study particularly focuses on the concept of “gender-mainstreaming”, a new approach that gained highlight during the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995. Specifically, the study seeks to measure the current status of Korean gender-mainstreaming in ODA by comparing and identifying lessons from the experienced two countries and also the peer OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) member states, Sweden and Japan. In order to compare the three countries’ gender-mainstreaming in ODA, the study had examined how social, economic and aid organizational structure influenced on allocation of aid in social-infrastructure & service for gender equality. The study concludes that gender equality is a cross cutting issue closely related to fundamental human rights and democracy, and the analysis showed social and cultural background, gender budgeting and organizational structure can effect one’s country’s investment on gender-mainstreaming in ODA. While Korea showed high aid concentration particularly on “population and reproductive health”, and additionally did not thoroughly implement gender elements within the most highly invested sector, Sweden on the other hand turned out to have high and equal distribution within all social-infrastructure & service sectors including education, health, population & reproductive health, water, government & civil society and others. Lastly, Japan had similar patterns with that of Korea, but definitely had higher budget and relatively even aid allocation for gender equality projects in social-infrastructure & service. The study realizes the relatively short history in international development, society’s demand for traditional gender roles and the rapid economic growth of Korea exist as obstacles for the country’s contribution for gender-mainstreaming in ODA. However, the study suggest as to truly contribute to the achievement of democracy and human rights through gender-mainstreaming in ODA, the planning and implementation of gender projects should be in a long-term perspective reflecting the social, economic and organizational changes of the donor country.

Gender Differences of Euphemism Usage in Different Culture Contexts : In the Case of China Mainland and the United States

왕현 건국대학교 대학원 2013 국내석사

Euphemism is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a phenomenon related with society and culture. It roots in certain language groups as well as the boundaries of language applications of particular social-cultural region, which leads to its distinctive mark of culture. It is easy to draw out the generalities and particularities of social development from its applications, which sometimes also reflect the values and ethics of a certain society along with the ethnic peculiarities and common qualities of certain culture. According to findings of former linguists’ research based on Politeness Principle and Cooperative Principle of sociolinguistics, this thesis intends to study the usage of euphemisms of both Chinese and American college students. Also, there is an explanation of those differences via reviewing euphemism’s classification and formation, and discussing of cross-culture by means of questionnaire and quantitative analysis. This thesis selects fifty questions and analyzes the results of questionnaire via a two-way ANOVA test to find out whether there are some significant main effects between different genders and culture. Finally the results were drawn based on the data sets of Chinese males versus Chinese females, American males versus American females, Chinese female sversus American females and Chinese males versus American males. The findings of this research showed that both gender and culture difference had significant impact on the usage of euphemism. In general, as a result of gender difference, both Chinese and American female students showed a more obvious euphemistic tendency than males. Additionally, as result of culture difference, both Chinese male and female students were more euphemistic than American students respectively. Social culture impact was a very important cause.

Gendered Sexual Health among Men in India

Flores, Jose M ProQuest Dissertations & Theses The Johns Hopkins 2017 해외박사(DDOD)

Background: The term “men who have sex with men” (MSM) provokes the illusion of sexual risk homogeneity among male sexual minorities. The term overemphasizes a single aspect of sex between men (behavior) and overlooks nuanced factors (such as gender/sexual identity) that affect the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Beyond STIs, the expression of gender/sexual identity has observable traits that predispose non-normative sexual minorities to profiling, discrimination and human rights abuses. In India, three subgroups of male sexual minorities differ in gender/sexual identity. Kothis have effeminate gender expressions and often practice receptive anal sex. Panthis have gender expression that reflect more traditional masculine roles and they tend to practice insertive anal intercourse with other men. The gender expression of Double-Deckers is mixed and situational and they practice both insertive and receptive anal sex depending on the specific situation or sexual partner.Methods: Respondent-Driven Sampling was used to recruit 12,022 men in 12 Indian cities from 9/2012 to 7/2013. In a questionnaire, participants were asked to select their gender/sexual identity from a list of locally recognized identities, including Panthis, Kothis, and Double Deckers. HIV and HSV-2 infection were ascertained using ELISA-based IgG assays. Syphilis was ascertained using standard Treponema (Treponema pallidum haemagglutination) and non-Treponema tests (Rapid Plasma Reagin) tests. Random-effects logistic regression was used for all aims. In aim 1, we estimated the associations between gender/sexual identity and serology-ascertained STIs (HIV, HSV-2, syphilis) as well as self-reported STIs (Hepatitis B, chlamydia, trichomonas, gonorrhea). We also estimated the association between gender/identity and concurrent infections (HIV and HSV-2, HSV-2 and syphilis, HIV and syphilis, HIV/HSV-2/syphilis concurrent infections). Associations were adjusted for age, intercourse type, sex work, number of partners, education, marital status, and circumcision. In aim 2, we estimated the association between gender/sexual identity and outcomes related to human/sexual rights (healthcare refusal, healthcare mistreatment, physical and sexual violence). In aim 3, we analyzed if 3 social stratifiers (age, family income and education) modified selected associations between gender/sexual identity and outcomes estimated in aim 1 and aim 2.Results: The parent trial recruited a total of 12,022 men who self-reported sexual encounters with other men. This analysis was restricted to 9,542 (79.37%) men who self-reported the 3 gender/sexual identities of interest: Kothi, Panthi and Double-Deckers. The mean age was 28.45 years, 33.08% were married, and median age at first intercourse with a man was 18 years. Panthis represented the largest subgroup (32.7%), followed by Kothis (23.5%), and Double Deckers (23.3%). In terms of sexually transmitted infections (aim 1), after adjustment for behavioral and social factors, compared to Panthis, Kothis had higher odds of HIV (OR=2.20; 95% CI=1.60, 3.03), HSV-2 (2.55; 2.04, 3.20), syphilis (2.35; 1.42, 3.90), and coinfections with HIV/HSV2 (2.56; 1.74, 3.75), HIV/syphilis (2.93, 1.17, 7.34), HSV2/syphilis (2.97, 1.58, 5.59) and HIV/HSV-2/syphilis (3.84; 1.40, 10.56). In terms of relative differences in human/sexual rights (aim 2), compared to Panthis, Kothis had higher odds of reporting being frequently mistreated by hospital staff (4.59; 3.54, 5.94), of frequently being refused medical care or denied hospital services (5.08; 3.79, 6.80), of frequently being refused housing (5.49; 4.20, 7.16), history of serious physical violence growing up (6.69; 5.97, 7.49), and history of forced attempts at unwanted sexual activity by an intimate partner (4.11; 3.67, 4.61). In aim 3, the differences in the associations between gender identity and HIV showed modification across strata of age, education and income. Men with high family incomes, high education (or both) had lower odds of HIV but these protective effects were largely limited to younger (not older) Kothis and Panthis.Conclusions: Men of different gender/sexual identities in India belong to heterogeneous subgroups. Kothis had elevated odds of HIV, HSV-2, and syphilis as well as higher odds of concurrent epidemics of these infections. Kothis were predisposed to human/sexual rights violations such as discrimination, physical and sexual violence. Education and income were associated with lower odds of HIV for younger but not older Kothis and Panthis. In contrast, sex work and the Kothi identity in India are associated with high risk of adverse sexual health outcomes independently of protective social variables. The role of education and income among younger men in their formative years warrants additional multi-disciplinary HIV research. Gender/sexual identity is an important biopsychosocial determinant of health that is associated with sexual behavior, epidemics of sexually transmitted infections, and the enjoyment of human rights.

Embodying gender through cancer: Medical interactions and the production of appropriately gendered bodies

Coutinho-Sledge, Piper Elizabeth ProQuest Dissertations & Theses The University of 2016 해외박사(DDOD)

In this dissertation I examine the regulation of appropriately gendered bodies within the cycle of care for "female" cancers. In both the cultural imagination and in medical care, activism and treatment of gynecological and breast cancers assume an alignment between individual identity, physical body, and normative ideologies of gender. Throughout, I argue that patients with the "wrong body" for female cancers illustrate the ways in which normative gender expectations are continually (re)produced within medical interactions and contribute to inequality in health care. My analysis draws on the experiences of patients whose bodies and gender identities don't match the medical and social expectations for gynecological and breast cancer care: transgender men who seek out gynecological care, cisgender men diagnosed with breast cancer, and cisgender women with breast cancer and/or BRCA mutations who choose prophylactic bilateral mastectomies. These patients create "gender trouble" for medical professionals. That is, they challenge associations between femininity/ female bodies and masculinity/ male bodies that are taken for granted in social life generally and are naturalized through medical care more specifically. I connect the stories of these patients to show that medical care turns on whether and how an individual "counts" as a man or woman in the context of these interactions and that patient treatment options hinge on their embodied choices. Building on contemporary theories of biopolitics and ethnomethodological theories of gender, I argue that medical interactions are critical to understanding the perpetuation of gender when bodies are under scrutiny. The interview data discussed in this dissertation shows that medical interactions reproduce and legitimate cultural ideologies of gender through patient bodies. Patients both resist and rely on gender ideologies to make sense of their treatment decisions and medical care.

Gender Pleasure: the Positive Affective Component of Gender/Sex

Beischel, William J ProQuest Dissertations & Theses University of Mich 2022 해외박사(DDOD)

This dissertation proposes and explores the construct of “gender pleasure,” or the positive affective experience of gender/sex. Although much of the research in psychology concerns the negatives of gender/sex, such as sexism, transphobia, and gender dysphoria, gender pleasure highlights how gender/sex can also be a source of joy and affirmation. In Chapter 1, I situate this dissertation within gender/sex research in psychology, particularly research centering gender/sex diversity and gender/sex as a social process. I then review literature relevant to people’s positive gender/sex experiences, particularly for people minoritized on the basis of their gender/sexes and/or sexualities. In Chapter 2, I describe a study that aimed to explore “gender euphoria,” a term related to gender pleasure that originated within gender/sex minority communities as a positive contrast to gender dysphoria. Despite gender euphoria’s importance to many people, no psychological research had directly explored this term’s meanings and related experiences. I therefore administered a qualitative survey to community members (N = 47) about where they had heard the term being used, how they would define gender euphoria and gender dysphoria, the relation between these terms, and their gender euphoric experiences. Analyses generated five themes: (1) gender euphoria describes a joyful feeling of rightness in one’s gender/sex, (2) gender euphoric experiences can be external, internal, and/or social, (3) “gender euphoria” originated in and circulates in online and in-person gender/sex minority communities, (4) dysphoria describes a negative feeling of conflict between gender/sexed aspects of one’s self, and (5) the relationship between euphoria and dysphoria is complex. I conclude that these results can inform qualitative and quantitative research, gender affirmative clinical practice, political fights for transgender rights, and understandings of gender/sex experiences for people of many identities. In Chapter 3, I describe my second study that extended understandings of gender pleasure beyond gender euphoria. To do this, I conducted focus groups with gender/sex/ual minorities diverse in terms of race/ethnicity (N = 64). Analyses generated four themes: (1) Accepting one’s self and living in authenticity and freedom provide joy, relief, and comfort; (2) Interpersonal gendered experiences that are affirming and free from judgement provide validation and belonging; (3) Gender norms and intersecting social locations and systems of power shape experiences of gender pleasure; and (4) Gender pleasure involves purely positive experiences, relief from negative experiences, and increases in positive affect. These results have implications for positive psychology research with gender/sex/ual minorities, thinking of gender/sex as a process, and clinical practice. In Chapter 4, I propose a model of gender pleasure as resonance between people’s gender/sex orientations, identities, and statuses (van Anders, 2015). I also demonstrate how the study of gender pleasure can contribute to gender/sex diversity research and more by attending to the ways gender/sex/ual minorities find enjoyment and happiness within their gender/sexes despite oppression. I conclude with the many potential avenues that this dissertation opens for understanding gender/sex in more comprehensive ways, ultimately in service of supporting the flourishing of people of all gender/sexes and sexualities.

(The) effectiveness of short video-based intervention on gender bias

배예진 Graduate School of Education, Korea University 2022 국내석사

Gender bias deepens gender disparity by fueling gender conflict. Thus, search for an effective gender bias intervention is needed. Considering the differences in experienced gender discrimination between genders, emotionally and logically understanding the opposite gender’s experiences in life can contribute to decreasing gender bias within Korean society. To this end, we conducted an online experiment utilizing VIDS (Video Interventions for Diversity in STEM) to heighten such understandings and examine the effectiveness of shortened intervention of VIDS. Controlling the effect of cultural orientation holds on gender bias, it was possible to assess the unbiased effect of shortened VIDS intervention. The result shows that this short video-based intervention significantly reduced gender bias among the participants. Furthermore, a moderation analysis indicated that engaging in high logical thinking weakened the significant effect of emotional immersion on reducing gender bias. These findings spotlights the possibility to develop and implement influential gender bias interventions in the future.