Throughout history, spanning from ancient China to the Joseon Dynasty, the concepts of Heaven and Sangje have encompassed diverse interpretations. However, they can be broadly categorized into two distinct approaches: a religious perspective that acce...
Throughout history, spanning from ancient China to the Joseon Dynasty, the concepts of Heaven and Sangje have encompassed diverse interpretations. However, they can be broadly categorized into two distinct approaches: a religious perspective that accentuates a transcendent personality and a rational viewpoint that underscores principles and laws. In the latter period of the Joseon Dynasty, intellectuals responded to these evolving notions through a spectrum of theories, including Confucian reform, burgeoning religious movements, the advocacy of upholding the correct path while eschewing heresy, and the concept of enlightenment.
Among these various theories, the religious approach found more prominence than the rational one, particularly within the contexts of Confucianism reform and burgeoning religious movements. This paper posits that notable figures like Dasan Jeong Yak-yong and Jeungsan Kang Il-sun embraced a robustly religious stance, aligning respectively with Confucian reform and burgeoning religious movements. Grounded in this perspective, they propagated moral theories that revolved around Sangje.
This thesis delves into the moral theories proposed by Dasan and Jeungsan, focusing particularly on their perspectives concerning the ‘resonance’ (感應) between humans and Sangje. Adopting this viewpoint, the researcher scrutinized both figure’s perspectives on the mind and Sangje, as well as their views on the practice and purpose of morality. Through this approach, a comparative analysis of the religious moral theories of Dasan and Jeungsan was facilitated, revealing their distinct attributes.
Chapter Ⅱ, titled ‘Intellectual Responses to Late Joseon’s Social Changes and The question of Moral Practice of Dasan and Jeungsan’ categorizes the responses of intellectuals to the evolving social milieu of the late Joseon Dynasty into four distinct classifications: Confucian reform, popular religious movements, the theory of upholding the correct path while renouncing heresy, and the concept of enlightenment. It is emphasized that the theories of Confucian reform and the popular religious movement, which encompass Dasan and Jeungsan, adopt a religious stance.
Moreover, the chapter delves into the critical thinking and awareness displayed by Dasan and Jeungsan during their times. Specifically, Dasan diagnosed contemporary society as plagued by maladies and sought to establish a system of ‘six scriptures and four texts’ (六經四書) study based on Sangje. He also introduced a social reform theory known as ‘one report and two books’ (一表二書) that aimed to bring about change throughout society. On the other hand, Jeungsan defined the ‘Former world’ (先天) as one governed by the ‘principle of conflict’ (相克) and strived to create a ‘Later world’ (後天) where ‘mutual beneficence’ (相生) would prevail. To achieve this vision, Jeungsan undertook the ‘Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth,’ (天地公事) a nine-year-long effort starting in 1901, with the aim of establishing an Earthly Paradise in the Later World.
Chapter Ⅲ, titled ‘Sangje and Intellectual Responses to Late Joseon’s Social Changes,’ examines how the moral theories of Dasan and Jeungsan were influenced by shifting notions of Heaven and Sangje, as well as how intellectuals of the era reacted to unfolding societal transformations. The chapter delves into the coexistence of two overarching approaches: a religious methodology accentuating the transcendent entity with the characteristics of personality-Heaven, and a rational approach spotlighting principles and laws. In the theory of Sangje, attention is given to Dasan and Jeungsan’s emphasis on Sangje as a source of fear and caution, thereby aiding individuals who are inclined towards selfish desires in making moral decisions.
Chapter Ⅳ, titled 'The Theory of Mind and the Theory of Resonance’ delves into the meaning of Dasan and Jeungsan’s concepts of mind and Sangje within the context of moral theory. The chapter is divided into two sections: the theory of mind and the theory of resonance. The theory of mind focuses on the human mind and aims to unveil its role in achieving moral autonomy. The theory of resonance illuminates the interaction between human beings and Sangje, mediated by the mind, and argues that this connection serves as the driving force behind individual morality.
Chapter Ⅴ, titled ‘Thoughts on the Practice of Morality,’ examines the methods and aims of moral practice as envisioned by Dasan and Jeungsan. The objective is to unveil that the ideal human beings envisioned by these scholars are outcomes of an ongoing process of moral practice, and that an ideal society similarly emerges through the resolution of real-world issues. The chapter scrutinizes the distinctive characteristics of each scholar’s moral philosophy. These traits encompass the differentiation between Subtle-Consciousness-Heaven resonance and Incarnation-Heaven resonance. The chapter also contrasts people-centered consciousness with Human Nobility consciousness. Additionally, it delves into how each scholar’s moral practice is centered around either the Confucian gentry or the general populace. Lastly, the chapter delves into their respective orientations, which revolve around either the national reform of ‘one report and two books’ or the aspiration for an Earthly Paradise in the Later World.
Chapter Ⅵ, titled ‘Conclusion’ summarizes the discussion of the moral theory of Dasan and Jeungsan and discusses the value and significance of moral theory.
Through this research, the author examined the thoughts of these two figures on 'the resonance between humans and Sangje' and their ideas on 'moral practice.' This approach enabled a comparative analysis of Dasan and Jeungsan's moral theories, revealing their distinctive characteristics. It became evident that the philosophies of Dasan and Jeungsan did not merely accept the entrenched societal norms, contradictions in reality, or ideologies of the ruling class. Instead, they sought to complement or innovate these elements. Dasan and Jeungsan posited that humans could gain the impetus for moral practice through resonance with Sangje, enabling individuals to live their lives while maintaining sincerity and avoiding self-deception. Based on this foundation, they aspired to transform society by practicing human relationships grounded in ethical principles.