This study aims to elucidate the significance of the transformation of Yi Yong-ak’s poetry by examining changes in his perception of space across different periods. Yi Yong-ak’s poetic world underwent shifts in accordance with the flow of modern a...
This study aims to elucidate the significance of the transformation of Yi Yong-ak’s poetry by examining changes in his perception of space across different periods. Yi Yong-ak’s poetic world underwent shifts in accordance with the flow of modern and contemporary Korean history. As a result, scholarly attention has largely focused on his works produced before liberation—widely regarded as his most accomplished—while his later works have been discussed far less frequently. Yi Yong-ak’s political activities and his defection to North Korea have often simplified the literary value of his poetry, confining it within the framework of so-called “system literature.” Reexamining Yi Yong-ak’s works, which have generally been understood as fragmented by period, is expected to offer a meaningful new perspective on his poetry.
The merit of Yi Yong-ak’s poetry written during the Japanese colonial period lies in its maintenance of distance from poetic objects, its expansion of individual lives into universal national realities, and its formation of lyricism. From the period of liberation onward, however, critics have argued that this lyricism weakened or disappeared as a politically and ideologically committed subject came to the forefront of his poetry. After his defection to North Korea, Yi Yong-ak’s poems, written under the constraints of system literature, tended to function as tools of ideological propaganda rather than focusing on lyricism or aesthetic qualities. For this reason, his post-defection works have often been regarded as particularly disconnected from his poetry of earlier periods.
While it is true that Yi Yong-ak’s post-defection works were used as hymns to the system and as instruments of ideological promotion, he nevertheless achieved a distinctive poetic accomplishment within them. This accomplishment can be understood as a continuation of his long-standing attempt, dating back to the Japanese colonial period, to overcome negative realities. Accordingly, this study seeks to identify the continuity in Yi Yong-ak’s poetry and to explain that continuity through his perception of space.
Drawing on Yuri Lotman’s theory of cultural space, this article adopts the primary classificatory model of internal and external spaces to analyze the meanings of Yi Yong-ak’s poems. Internal and external spaces together constitute a universal set and exist in a complementary yet oppositional relationship. Furthermore, the orientation of a text becomes evident depending on whether its viewpoint aligns with internal or external space. When the textual viewpoint is aligned with internal space and oriented toward external space, it exhibits a “forward orientation,” whereas alignment with external space and orientation toward internal space constitutes a “reverse orientation.” In Yi Yong-ak’s poetry, the criterion that distinguishes internal from external space is the possibility of “dwelling,” which undergoes significant transformation amid the social upheaval accompanying the transition from premodern to modern society.
Chapter 2 classifies and analyzes Yi Yong-ak’s poems written during the Japanese colonial period according to the framework of internal and external space. These works, which have been the primary focus of previous studies, are widely regarded as the most literarily accomplished among his poetry. They depict uprooted beings who wander after losing their original living spaces, as well as individuals who have lost their identities due to the collapse of premodern communities. In these poems, the textual viewpoint aligns with external space and thus displays a reverse orientation.
Section 2.1 examines how internal space is represented within texts characterized by reverse orientation. The collapse of premodern communities during the colonial period deprived individuals of their established modes of life and dwelling, fragmenting them into wandering subjects. At this point, the premodern order no longer functions as the foundation of community. Internal space, reduced to the abstract meaning of dwelling without concrete form, reveals itself only through orientation toward habitation. Archetypal spaces such as “home” or “hometown,” which once constituted internal space but lost their significance during the transition to modernity, become the very impetus for wandering.
Section 2.2 analyzes the representation of the “road” as an external space. Yi Yong-ak perceived the external space of the colonial period as one in which the collapsed premodern order, the yet-to-be-established modern order, and the violence and chaos of Japanese imperialism coexisted. While recognizing the necessity of establishing a new order, he refrained from direct resistance in order to construct a habitable space that remained only an object of orientation. Instead, the subject exhibits momentary escape and evasive attitudes, experiencing ontological alienation as an impoverished living being.
Chapter 3 explores how Yi Yong-ak’s perception of internal and external space during the colonial period becomes concretized in his poetry of the liberation period. Whereas internal space had previously existed only as an object of orientation, Yi Yong-ak now gives it concrete form under the names of “nation,” “territory,” and “homeland.” This shift reflects the emergence of a political subject proposed by Yi Yong-ak as a means of overcoming the tragic lives of wandering individuals.
Section 3.1 focuses on Yi Yong-ak’s perception of nation and territory during the liberation period. Despite liberation from colonial rule, Korea still faced numerous unresolved national issues. In Yi Yong-ak’s poetry, “nation,” “territory,” and “homeland” do not immediately resolve material deprivation but instead function as hopeful internal spaces that contain the possibility of a future. The internal space that had once been perceived merely as the complement of external space and as an object of orientation for wandering beings is now concretized as a national form of community.
Section 3.2 examines representations of roads and streets during the liberation period, demonstrating how they differ from those of the colonial period. Whereas the road in colonial-period poetry was a space of aimless wandering sustained by the faint hope that internal space might exist somewhere, in liberation-period poetry roads and streets become spaces of struggle aimed at securing internal space directly. The political subject transitions from wandering along colonial roads to entering roads as sites of struggle. Thus, the road in liberation-period poetry functions not as a purposeless external space but as a space of awakening in which political subjects confront reality in pursuit of internal space.
Chapter 4 addresses the poetic spaces of Yi Yong-ak’s works written after his defection to North Korea. These poems were produced within the context of system literature and clearly aimed at defending and promoting socialist ideology. As a result, a more overtly political subject and perspective emerge, making these works appear disconnected from his earlier poetry. However, this shift represents the realization of the internal spatial order Yi Yong-ak had long pursued. Under system literature, internal space is embodied as a space in which socialist order is fully realized, while spaces outside this order are categorized as external. The unique condition of national division further produces a multilayered spatial perception.
Section 4.1 focuses on representations of the “village” in North Korea, analyzing how it functions as a complete internal space under socialism. In post-defection poetry, the village is depicted as a paradisiacal and archetypal space where beings achieve dwelling amid spiritual and material abundance. Labor in this space no longer extends the pain of existential alienation but instead becomes an act that sustains and protects the order of internal space. These representations are conveyed through biographical or narrative elements, enabling Yi Yong-ak’s poetry to secure lyricism alongside its function as system literature and to achieve a distinct literary accomplishment. Socialism thus becomes the final destination of the poetic orientation Yi Yong-ak had pursued since the colonial period.
Section 4.2 analyzes Yi Yong-ak’s perception of spaces beyond North Korea. The Soviet Union, as a core socialist state, is depicted both as an internal space with a fully established order and as an object of admiration. Romania, another socialist country, is romantically portrayed as a fraternal space. South Korea, by contrast, appears as a multilayered space. It is initially represented as an external space marked by conflict under the influence of the United States and ideological opposition to socialism. At the same time, South Korea is portrayed as a space that exposes the unresolved lack created by national division—a problem that socialism alone cannot resolve. Confronting this newly encountered condition of division, Yi Yong-ak perceives South Korea as a space that could potentially be incorporated into internal space under a socialist order.
Ultimately, Yi Yong-ak’s poetic perception of space traces a process in which fragmented individuals, wandering without identity after the collapse of premodern order, recover their identities and construct a new community. Even if this process culminates in system literature under socialism, Yi Yong-ak presents an ethical world in which beings live in solidarity within a newly established community.