Astronomy : the cosmic journey

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Preface = ⅴ
• Invitation to the Cosmic Journey = 1
• Our Definition of Astronomy = 1
• A Survey of the Universe = 3
• A Word About Mathematics = 3
• A Note About Names of People = 4
• A Hint on Using This Book = 4
• Face to Face with the Universe = 4
• Concepts 5／Problem = 5
• PART A THE EARLY DISCOVERIES = 7
• 1 Prehistoric Astronomy : Origins of Science and Superstition = 8
• The Earliest Astronomy : Motives and Artifacts (c. 30 000 B.c.) = 9
• Calendar Refinements (10 000-3000 B.C.) = 9
• Other Early Discoveries = 10
• Origin of the Constellations = 14
• The Seasons : Solstices, Equinoxes, and Their Applications = 17
• Astrology : Ancient Origins of a Superstition = 25
• Eclipses : Occasions for Awe = 29
• Summary 37
• Concepts 38
• Problems = 38
• Advanced Problem 38
• Projects = 39
• 2 Historic Advances : Worlds in the Sky = 40
• Early Cosmologies and Abstract Thinking (2500-100 B.C.) = 40
• The System of Angular Measurement = 42
• Early Greek Astronomy (c. 600 B.C. to A.D. 150) = 44
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅰ : The Small-Angle Equation = 46
• Ancient Astronomy-Beyond the Mediterranean = 53
• Summary 57
• Concepts 57
• Problems 57
• Advanced Problems = 58
• Projects = 58
• 3 Discovering the Layout of the Solar System = 59
• Clues to the Solar System's Configuration = 59
• Problems with the Ptolemaic Model = 60
• The Copernican Revolution = 62
• Bode's Rule = 69
• The Solar System as We Know It Today = 70
• Summary 71
• Concepts 71
• Problems = 72
• Advanced Problems 72
• Projects = 72
• PART B TWO METHODS FOR EXPLORING SPACE : UNDERSTANDING GRAVITY AND UNDERSTANDING LIGHT = 73
• 4 Gravity and the Conquest of Space = 74
• Dreams of Escaping Earth = 74
• Newton's Law of Gravitational Force = 75
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅱ : Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation = 76
• Rockets and Spaceships = 79
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅲ : Calculating Circular and Escape Velocities = 79
• The Decision to Explore the Moon : Science and National Policy = 82
• After Apollo = 84
• Space Exploration : Costs and Results = 84
• Looking to the Future = 87
• Summary = 91
• Concepts = 91
• Problems = 91
• Advanced Problems = 92
• Projects = 92
• 5 Light and the Spectrum : Messages from Space = 93
• The Nature of Light : Waves vs. Particles = 93
• The Spectrum = 94
• Origins of Light : Electromagnetic Disturbances = 96
• Emission Lines and Bands = 98
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅳ : Measuring Temperatures of Astronomical Bodies : Wien's Law = 99
• Absorption Lines and Bands = 102
• Analyzing Spectra = 104
• The Three Functions of Telescopes = 107
• Using Visual Telescopes = 108
• Photography with Telescopes = 111
• Photometry = 111
• Image Processing = 112
• Spectrophotometry = 113
• Interferometry = 115
• Light Pollution : A Threat to Astronomy = 115
• Summary = 116
• Concepts = 117
• Problems = 117
• Advanced Problems = 117
• Projects = 118
• PART C EXPLORING THE EARTH-MOON SYSTEM = 119
• 6 Earth as a Planet = 120
• Earth's Age = 121
• Earth's Internal Structure = 124
• Lithospheres and Plate Tectonics : An Explanation of Planetary Landscapes = 126
• Other Important Processes in Earth's Evolution = 129
• Earth's Magnetic Field = 131
• Earth's Atmosphere and Oceans = 131
• The Astronomical Connection = 133
• Summary = 138
• Concepts = 139
• Problems = 139
• Advanced Problems = 140
• Project = 140
• 7 The Moon = 141
• The Moon's Phases and Rotation = 142
• Tidal Evolution of the Earth-Moon System = 144
• Surface Features of the Moon = 146
• Flights to the Moon = 149
• Lunar Rocks : Implications for the Moon and Earth = 153
• The Interior of the Moon = 158
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅴ : The Definition of Mean Density = 158
• Cratering of the Moon and Earth = 159
• Where Did the Moon Come From? = 160
• Return to the Moon? = 163
• Summary = 164
• Concepts = 167
• Problems = 167
• Advanced Problems = 167
• Projects = 168
• PART D THE SOLAR SYSTEM = 169
• 8 Introducing the Planets-Mercury = 170
• A Survey of the Planets = 170
• Comparative Planetology : An Approach to Studying Planets = 171
• The Planet Mercury = 174
• A Lesson in Comparative Planetology : Surface Features vs. Planet Size = 181
• Summary = 182
• Concepts = 182
• Problems = 182
• Advanced Problems = 183
• Projects = 183
• 9 Venus = 184
• The Slow Retrograde Rotation of Venus = 184
• Venus' Infernal Atmosphere = 185
• Landscapes on Venus = 189
• Venus Compared with Earth = 193
• Undiscovered Worlds Among the Terrestrial Planets? = 194
• A Lesson in Comparative Planetology : Why Do Some Planets Lack Atmospheres? = 194
• Summary = 195
• Concepts = 196
• Problems = 196
• Advanced Problems = 196
• Projects = 196
• 10 Mars = 197
• Mars as Seen with Earth-Based Telescopes = 197
• The Lure of Mars = 200
• Voyages to the Surface of Mars = 203
• Major Geological Structures = 206
• Rock Samples from Mars? = 212
• The Mystery of the Ancient Martian Climate = 213
• Where Are the Martians? = 216
• Martian Satellites : Phobos and Deimos = 218
• Expeditions to Mars = 220
• A Lesson in Comparative Planetology : The Topography of Earth, Venus, and Mars = 221
• Summary = 221
• Concepts = 221
• Problems = 223
• Advanced Problems = 223
• Projects = 223
• 11 Jupiter and Its Moons = 224
• Introducing the Outer Solar System = 224
• The Planet Jupiter = 225
• Jupiter's Satellites = 230
• The Ring of Jupiter = 243
• Future Studies of Jupiter = 243
• Why Giant Planets Have Massive Atmospheres = 243
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅵ : Typical Velocities of Atoms and Molecules in a Gas = 244
• Summary = 245
• Concepts = 246
• Problems = 246
• Advanced Problems = 246
• Projects = 246
• 12 The Outermost Planets and Their Moons = 247
• The Planet Saturn = 247
• Saturn's Rings = 248
• Saturn's Satellites = 254
• The Planet Uranus = 261
• Uranus' Satellites = 263
• The Planet Neptune = 264
• The Planet Pluto and Its Moon = 268
• Planet X? = 269
• Comparison of Giant Planet Atmospheres-From Cold to Colder = 269
• A Lesson in Comparative Planetology : Comparisons Among Moon Systems = 270
• Summary = 270
• Concepts = 270
• Problems = 271
• Advanced Problems = 271
• Projects = 271
• 13 Comets, Meteors, Asteroids, and Meteorites = 272
• Comets = 273
• Meteors and Meteor Showers = 284
• Asteroids = 286
• Meteorites = 290
• Zodiacal Light = 293
• Siberia Revisited : Asteroid or Comet Impact? = 295
• Summary = 295
• Concepts = 296
• Problems = 296
• Advanced Problems = 297
• Projects = 297
• 14 The Origin of the Solar System = 298
• Facts to Be Explained by a Theory of Origin = 298
• Catastrophic vs. Evolutionary Theories = 300
• The Protosun = 300
• The Solar Nebula = 302
• A Presolar Explosion? = 304
• From Planetesimals to Planets = 304
• Evolution Plus a Few Catastrophes = 309
• The Chemical Compositions of Planets = 309
• Magnetic Effects and the Sun's Spin = 311
• Stellar Evidence for Other Planetary Systems = 311
• Summary = 311
• Concepts = 312
• Problems = 312
• Advanced Problems = 312
• PART E STARS AND THEIR EVOLUTION = 313
• 15 The Sun : The Nature of the Nearest Star = 314
• Spectroscopic Discoveries = 314
• Composition of the Sun = 317
• Solar Energy from Nuclear Reactions = 318
• The Sun's Interior Structure = 322
• The Photosphere : The Solar Surface = 323
• Chromosphere and Corona : The Solar Atmosphere = 324
• Sunspots and Sunspot Activity = 326
• Solar Wind = 329
• Aurorae and Solar-Terrestrial Relations = 330
• Is the Sun Constant? = 334
• Solar Energy and Other Cosmic Fuels = 336
• Summary = 336
• Concepts = 337
• Problems = 338
• Advanced Problems = 338
• Projects = 338
• 16 Measuring the Basic Properties of Stars = 339
• Names of Stars = 340
• Images of Stars = 340
• Defining a Stellar Distance Scale : Light-Years and Parsecs = 340
• Defining a Brightness Scale : Apparent Magnitude = 341
• A Magnitude Scale for Expressing "True" Brightness of Stars = 343
• Basic Principles of Stellar Spectra = 344
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅶ : The Doppler Effect : Approach and Recession Velocities = 349
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅷ : The Stefan-Boltzmann Law : Rate of Energy Radiation = 350
• Measuring 12 Important Stellar Properties = 351
• The Importance of Telescopes in Space = 359
• Summary = 361
• Concepts = 362
• Problems = 362
• Advanced Problems = 362
• Project = 363
• 17 The Systematics of Nearby Stars : The H-R Diagram = 364
• Classifying Star Types : The H-R Diagram = 364
• The Nearby Stars as a Representative Sample of All Stars = 366
• Representative Stars vs. Prominent Stars = 367
• Explaining the Types of Stars : Different Masses and Different Ages = 371
• Philosophical Implications of Theoretical Astrophysics = 376
• An Overview of Stellar Evolution = 378
• Summary = 381
• Concepts = 381
• Problems = 381
• Advanced Problems = 382
• Project = 382
• 18 Stellar Evolution Ⅰ : Birth and Middle Age = 383
• Three Proofs of "Present-Day" Star Formation = 383
• The Protostar Stage = 384
• The Pre-Main-Sequence Stage = 387
• Examples of Pre-Main-Sequence Observed Objects = 392
• Debris of Star Formation = 402
• The Main-Sequence Stage = 403
• Summary = 404
• Concepts = 404
• Problems = 404
• Advanced Problem = 405
• Project = 405
• 19 Stellar Evolution Ⅱ : Death and Transfiguration = 406
• The Giant Stage = 407
• The Variable Stage = 408
• Mass Loss Among Evolved Stars = 411
• The Demise of Sunlike Stars : White Dwarfs = 414
• In the Cores of Massive Red Giants : Onion-skin Layers = 418
• The Demise of Very Massive Stars : Supernovae = 418
• Neutron Stars (Pulsars) : New Light on Old Stars = 424
• Remnants of Extremely Massive Stars : Black Holes = 425
• The Dernise of the Most Massive Stars = 430
• Practical Applications? = 430
• Summary = 430
• Concepts = 431
• Problems = 432
• Advanced Problems = 432
• Projects = 432
• PART F ENVIRONMENT AND GROUPINGS OF STARS = 433
• 20 Interstellar Atoms, Dust, and Nebulae = 434
• The Effects of Interstellar Material on Starlight = 436
• Observed Types of Interstellar Material = 442
• Four Types of Interstellar Regions = 444
• Classes of Nebulae = 449
• Summary = 460
• Concepts = 460
• Problems = 460
• Advanced Problems = 461
• Projects = 461
• 21 Companions to Stars : Binaries, Multiples, and Possible Planetary Systems = 462
• Optical Doubles vs. Physical Binaries = 462
• Types of Physical Binaries = 463
• What Can We Learn from Binary Stars? = 466
• How Many Stars Are Binary or Multiple? = 467
• Evolution of Binary Systems : Mass Transfer = 468
• Novae : Exploding Members of Binary Pairs = 470
• Contact Binaries and Other Unusual Phenomena Associated with Binaries = 471
• Examples of Binary and Multiple Systems = 472
• The Search for Alien Planets = 475
• The Origin of Binary and Multiple Stars = 478
• Summary = 479
• Concepts = 479
• Problems = 480
• Advanced Problems = 480
• Projects = 480
• 22 Star Clusters and Associations = 481
• Three Types of Star Groupings = 481
• Discoveries and Catalogs of Clusters = 484
• Measuring Distances of Clusters = 485
• Distribution of Clusters = 487
• The Nature of Open Clusters and Associations = 488
• The Nature of Globular Clusters = 492
• Origin of Clusters and Associations = 495
• Summary = 495
• Concepts = 495
• Problems = 495
• Advanced Problems = 496
• Projects = 496
• PART G GALAXIES = 497
• 23 The Milky Way Galaxy = 498
• Discovering and Mapping the Galactic Disk = 498
• The Rotation of the Galaxy = 503
• The Age of the Galaxy = 503
• Mapping the Spiral Arms = 503
• Measuring the Galaxy's Mass = 509
• Comprehending Galactic Distances = 509
• The Two Populations of Stars = 511
• Probing the Galactic Center = 515
• Energetic Events in the Galactic Nucleus = 516
• Summary = 519
• Concepts = 520
• Problems = 520
• Advanced Problems = 521
• Projects = 521
• 24 The Local Galaxies = 522
• The Nearby Galaxies = 523
• The Great Andromeda Spiral Galaxy = 531
• Surveying and Classifying Galaxies = 534
• Colliding Galaxies = 541
• Evolution in Galaxies = 547
• Summary = 551
• Concepts = 551
• Problems = 551
• Advanced Problems = 552
• Projects = 552
• 25 The Expanding Universe of Distant Galaxies = 553
• The Largest Distance Unit in Astronomy = 553
• Clusters and Superclusters of Galaxies = 553
• Discovering the Red Shift = 554
• Interpreting the Red Shift : An Expanding Universe? = 556
• Intensely Radiating Galaxies = 559
• Quasars : The Most Energetic Galactic Nuclei? = 571
• Optional Basic Equation Ⅸ : The Relativistic Doppler Shift = 572
• Summary = 578
• Concepts = 579
• Problems = 579
• Advanced Problems = 579
• PART H FRONTIERS = 581
• 26 Cosmology : The Universe's Structure = S82
• The Most Distant Galaxies = 583
• Early Cosmologies = 585
• Olbers' Paradox = 587
• Modern Mathematical Cosmologies = 588
• Direct Cosmological Observations = 593
• Will the Universe Keep Expanding Forever? = 595
• The Future of the Universe = 598
• Summary = 599
• Concepts = 599
• Problems = 599
• Advanced Problems = 599
• 27 Cosmogony : A Twentieth-Century Version of Creation = 600
• The Date of Creation = 600
• The First Minutes of the Universe = 602
• Quantum Mechanics and the Inflationary Big Bang Theory = 602
• Predicting Abundances of Elements in Population Ⅱ = 604
• The First Millennia of the Universe : Radiation vs. Matter = 604
• Formation of Galaxies = 607
• Formation of Heavy Elements = 609
• A Cosmic Reference Frame = 610
• Before the Big Bang = 611
• Are There "Other Places"? = 611
• Why? = 612
• Summary = 612
• Concepts = 612
• Problems = 613
• Advanced Problem = 613
• 28 Life in the Universe = 614
• The Nature of Life = 615
• The Origin of Life on Earth = 616
• Planets Outside the Solar System? = 621
• Has Life Evolved Elsewhere? = 623
• Summary = 633
• Concepts = 633
• Problems = 633
• Advanced Problems = 635
• Epilogue : The Cosmic Perspective = 636
• Essay A : Pseudoscience and Nonscience = 640
• Science and Pseudoscience = 640
• Astrology = 640
• Pseudoscience Based on Extraordinary Reports = 640
• UFOs = 641
• "Scientific Creationism" = 643
• How to React to Pseudoscience = 644
• Essay B : Astronomical Coordinates and Timekeeping Systems = 645
• Right Ascension and Declination Coordinates = 645
• The Effect of Precession on Right Ascension and Declination = 645
• Another Celestial Coordinate System = 648
• Systems of Timekeeping = 648
• Toward the Modern Calendar = 648
• Appendixes
• Appendix 1 Powers of Ten = 650
• Appendix 2 Units of Measurement = 652
• Appendix 3 Supplemental Aids in Studying Astronomy = 654
• Glossary = 655
• References = 673
• Index = 684
• Star Maps = 695